Table 3 Parameter settings of the compared algorithms.

KEO_Chaotic

Energy threshold = 0.5, Zigzag scale factor β = 0.5, Energy level is varied through Chaotic logistic map defined in Eq. (11)

KEO_Energy_Decay

Energy threshold = 0.5, Zigzag scale factor β = 0.5, Energy level is varied through linear decay defined in Eq. (22)

Caterpillar fungus Optimizer (CFO)

Adaptive⁵⁸

DE

Differentiation (or mutation) constant (F) = 0.5; crossover constant (CR) = 0.2⁶⁴

MShOA

Parameter (b) = 1⁵⁹

PSO

Cognitive parameter (c1) = 2; Social parameter (c2) = 2⁶⁵

RIME

Soft-rime parameters (W) = 5^61,62

WOA

Proportion of females (P) = 0.4⁶³

WUTPO

Initial velocity (J) = 0.1⁶⁰