Fig. 4

Dose- and time-dependent larvicidal activity of ZnO nanoparticles against target organism. Box plots represent percent mortality observed at (a) 18 h, (b) 24 h, (c) 48 h and (d) 72 h, post-treatment with different concentrations of ZnO nanoparticles (Zn NPs: 50, 100, 150 and 200 µg/mL), fungal extract and negative control. Mortality rates increased significantly in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with the highest mortality observed at 200 µg/mL ZnO NPs after 72 h exposure. Fungal extract alone exhibited moderate activity, while negative control groups showed minimal mortality throughout the experimental period. Data are presented as box plots indicating median, interquartile range and minimum/maximum values (n = 5 per group). Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test with p < 0.05 considered significant.