Abstract
In Pakistan, where unemployment and environmental degradation present major challenges, fostering sustainable entrepreneurial intentions among university students is crucial for promoting sustainable development. This study examines the key factors influencing students’ intentions to launch environmentally focused startups, emphasizing the conservation of natural resources. By extending the theory of planned behavior to include environmental and sociological factors, this research provides deeper insights into sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. Data from 475 students across Pakistani higher education institutions, collected between May and September 2024, were analyzed using covariance-based structural equation modeling with AMOS. The results indicate that personal attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms are significant predictors of sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. Environmental awareness and sustainability-focused education fosters positive attitudes and enhance perceived behavioral control, while family and social support strengthen subjective norms. This study enriches the theory of planned behavior by integrating environmental and social factors, particularly within the context of a developing economy. The findings offer practical recommendations for policymakers and educators to promote sustainability-oriented education and family involvement in supporting green ventures.
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Introduction
Sustainable entrepreneurship is increasingly prioritized across the globe, driven by the pressing need to address critical challenges such as climate change, resource depletion, and social inequity1. By integrating economic, social, and environmental goals, sustainable entrepreneurship offers a pathway to innovation and responsible business practices2. Achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) necessitates fostering entrepreneurial mindsets aligned with sustainability, particularly among emerging entrepreneurs1,3,4. In this context, sustainable entrepreneurship not only enhances business viability but also promotes long-term environmental and social well-being. However, while significant research has focused on entrepreneurial intentions within traditional domains, sustainable entrepreneurship remains an underexplored area5,6.
Building on this global context, prior research has examined specific aspects of sustainable entrepreneurship, such as the role of training7, entrepreneurial processes8, and the environmental orientation of entrepreneurs9. Other studies have examined foundational concepts like eco-business startups and the circular economy10. Behavioral foundations of sustainable entrepreneurship have also been studied, with the theory of planned behavior (TPB) often applied to examine entrepreneurial intentions11,12,13. In Pakistan, where sustainable entrepreneurship is increasingly vital for addressing socio-economic and environmental challenges, the country grapples with significant obstacles that underscore the need for fostering sustainable entrepreneurial intentions (SEI) among its youth. With 68% of its population under 30, Pakistan faces mounting socio-economic pressures14,15, including a 9.9% youth unemployment rate16, and severe environmental degradation, such as urban air pollution costing approximately 6% of GDP annually17. In addition, climate-induced floods, intensified by monsoon rains and glacier melt, threaten livelihoods and infrastructure, while deforestation accelerates ecological instability18,19,20. Nevertheless, despite growing global recognition of sustainable entrepreneurship as a driver of transformative change1,21, evidence among university students suggests Pakistan lags in cultivating robust SEI22,23. This lag is driven by limited access to sustainability-focused education, scarce green finance, and weak policy support24,25. For example, although 60% of Pakistani university students report entrepreneurial aspirations, only 15% prioritize sustainable ventures, a gap attributed to cultural preferences for conventional careers and insufficient targeted training26. Addressing this disparity is crucial for encouraging environmentally and socially responsible startups that can bolster Pakistan’s economic resilience and environmental sustainability.
While recent research has investigated individual factors influencing SEI, such as environmental awareness27,28 and sustainability education1, there are notable gaps in integrating these factors into a cohesive framework. Specifically, while TPB has been widely used to predict entrepreneurial intentions13, few studies have incorporated environmental awareness, education for sustainable entrepreneurship (ESE), and sociological factors (such as family and social support) into the TPB framework to explain SEI among university students. Environmental awareness, defined as sensitivity to ecological issues and the ability to identify green business opportunities29,30. It is a critical driver of SEI, yet its interaction with TPB constructs (e.g., attitudes) remains underexplored, especially in Pakistan where ecological degradation is intensified by rapid economic growth5,15.
Similarly, ESE fosters interdisciplinary competencies that align entrepreneurial goals with sustainability, but its influence on TPB components, such as perceived behavior control and attitude are rarely examined4,31,32,33. Unlike standard curricula, ESE fosters self-efficacy by aligning entrepreneurial goals with societal and environmental needs across disciplines34. Furthermore, the role of family and social support in shaping SEI within the TPB model remains underexplored, despite ongoing debates regarding their influence on entrepreneurial decisions35,36,37. While environmental awareness and sociological influences have been separately examined, research on how these variables collectively shape SEI is insufficient38,39,40. This study aims to address these gaps by integrating family and social support along with environmental awareness and ESE within the TPB framework, providing a comprehensive understanding of SEI.
In addition to the TPB, which is widely used to predict entrepreneurial behavior41, scholars advocate for extending TPB to incorporate environmental and sociological variables that capture the complexities faced by sustainable entrepreneurs1,42,43. These variables, including specialized knowledge, social validation, and value alignment, shape both the intention and capacity for sustainable entrepreneurship44,45. To effectively promote SEI, research must integrate psychological, environmental, and social dimensions27. This holistic approach is essential, as sustainability-driven ventures face challenges more complex than those of conventional entrepreneurs42,46. Gaining insight into their SEI is essential for shaping a more sustainable future47.
The primary objective of this study is to address two key research questions: (1) How do the TPB constructs mediate the relationships between environmental awareness, education for sustainable entrepreneurship, and sociological factors (family and social support) in shaping SEI? (2) How do the TPB constructs directly influence SEI? By answering these questions, this study aims to contribute to the theoretical understanding of sustainable entrepreneurship by extending the TPB framework to include environmental and sociological factors, which have been underexplored in the literature. Specifically, the study examines how environmental awareness and sustainability education influence students’ attitudes and perceived behavioral control (PBC), and how family and social support shape subjective norms (SN) and, ultimately, SEI.
In addition to its theoretical contribution, this study provides practical insights for policymakers and educators in Pakistan, where economic growth often conflicts with environmental sustainability. For example, integrating sustainability into entrepreneurship curricula and fostering family and social support networks can help promote SEI among students. This study also underscores the importance of providing university students with the skills and knowledge required to pursue sustainable ventures, especially in a developing economy where resources may be limited. Policymakers can use these findings to design interventions that leverage students’ environmental awareness and social networks, thereby creating a more conducive environment for the growth of green ventures. Similarly, universities can adopt interdisciplinary curricula that align business education with sustainability principles, ensuring that students are prepared to launch ventures that balance economic success with environmental and social responsibility.
This manuscript is structured as follows: Section “Theoretical foundations” reviews the theoretical foundations of TPB and sustainable entrepreneurship; Section “Hypothesis development and research model” outlines the hypothesis development and research model; Section “Methodology” describes the methodology; Section “Results” presents the results, including theoretical contributions to TPB and practical implications for fostering sustainable entrepreneurship in Pakistan; and Section “Discussion” provides a discussion, highlighting the study’s contributions, limitations, and directions for future research.
Theoretical foundations
Entrepreneurial intention has been studied through several frameworks, including Ajzen’s TPB41, Shapero’s Entrepreneurial Event Model (EEM)48, the Lüthje and Franke model49, and the Reasoned Action Approach (RAA)50. While EEM emphasizes perceived desirability, feasibility, and propensity to act, and the Lüthje–Franke model combines personality traits with contextual factors, TPB remains the most parsimonious and empirically validated framework. Its explanatory power is especially evident in sustainable entrepreneurship research, where extended TPB models have been widely applied to examine SEI. TPB posits that intentions are shaped by attitudes, SN, and PBC, providing a flexible and robust foundation validated across entrepreneurial contexts6,19,20. Building on this, the present study extends TPB by incorporating environmental awareness, ESE, and social and family support, capturing broader sociological and environmental influences on SEI. RAA refines TPB by splitting constructs (e.g., attitude into experiential and instrumental components), but its complexity may not suit the exploratory nature of SEI, TPB offers the conceptual clarity and adaptability needed for exploratory research in developing economies, making it the most suitable framework for this study.
In TPB, personal attitude not only reflects optimism about economic viability but also includes recognition of the social and ecological benefits of sustainable ventures45,51. Additionally, SN capture perceived social expectations from peers, family, and mentors regarding the legitimacy of sustainability-oriented ventures29. PBC reflects an individual’s belief in their ability to launch such ventures, shaped by access to resources, skills, and institutional support52. While TPB focuses on individual cognition, it can be enhanced by integrating broader environmental and sociological conditions that influence entrepreneurial decision-making in resource-constrained settings2,53.
As we explore the context of sustainability, it becomes clear that SEI represents an entrepreneurial mindset that integrates economic performance with social equity and environmental responsibility12,51. In this context, sustainable entrepreneurs aim for solutions that tackle systemic challenges such as climate change and inequality5. Recent studies have expanded TPB by including personality traits12, personal values25, and environmental concern in shaping attitudes, norms, and perceived control40. For example, Valencia-Arias et al. (2025) found that incorporating future orientation into TPB significantly predicted SEI among Colombian students, showcasing its cross-cultural relevance54. Moreover, empirical studies in Pakistan have shown that sustainability-focused education strengthens attitudes and intentions, while social media engagement and institutional support enhance normative beliefs22,55. Furthermore, family and peer networks amplify SN, indirectly influencing entrepreneurial intention36.
To further refine our understanding of TPB, additional extensions involve combining it with other models. For instance, Vuorio and colleagues integrated TPB with the entrepreneurial event model (EEM) to capture sustainability attitudes, aspirations, and feasibility perceptions6. The inclusion of personal values like altruism and the balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has also gained prominence in this field. Fichter and Tiemann (2020) found that integrating sustainability criteria into business plan competitions helped participants focus more on sustainable business models, thereby fostering innovative solutions to social and environmental challenges53. Additionally, environmental awareness has emerged as a key driver in shaping sustainable behavior. Lam et al., extended TPB by incorporating environmental self-identity and moral norms to explain pro-environmental intentions, highlighting how personal moral norms are strong predictors of intention, with SN exerting indirect effects56.
In line with TPB, social support—including both emotional and practical resources from family, peers, and mentors—has been shown to influence SEI, though its impact on PBC is less consistent. For example, Duong et al. (2022) reported that education significantly enhanced PBC in Vietnam, although its effect on attitudes was weaker among non-business students57. This finding suggests that while social and family support influence SEI indirectly, they play a pivotal role in shaping SN, particularly in collectivist cultures like Pakistan, where family and societal networks provide essential guidance36.
Similarly, earlier studies have explored how sustainability education, altruism, and self-efficacy indirectly influence SEI through TPB’s constructs1. However, gaps remain in understanding how the combined effects of education for sustainable entrepreneurship, environmental awareness, and sociological factors like family and social support influence SEI. This study seeks to address these gaps by integrating these variables within the TPB framework to examine their collective impact on SEI among university students in Pakistan.
Hypothesis development and research model
The environmental perspective: linking to personal attitude and perceived behavior control
Environmental awareness plays a critical role in sustainable entrepreneurship, shaping individuals’ sensitivity to ecological issues and their ability to identify opportunities for environmentally innovative ventures12,29. According to value-belief-norm theory58, individuals with strong environmental concerns are more likely to engage in entrepreneurial behaviors that align with these values, including the pursuit of green ventures28,59. Specifically, in Pakistan, where environmental degradation accompanies rapid economic growth, students with heightened environmental awareness are more inclined to foster positive attitudes toward sustainable business ventures15,45. This awareness not only promotes favorable attitudes but also boosts self-confidence and self-efficacy, enhancing students’ ability to identify entrepreneurial opportunities, develop relevant skills, and gain a sense of control over ecological challenges12,60.
Research supports the idea that environmental awareness motivates entrepreneurs to adopt sustainable practices, thereby strengthening their commitment to eco-friendly entrepreneurship11,61. However, empirical evidence connecting environmental awareness to entrepreneurial attitudes and perceived control remains limited, warranting further investigation62. Furthermore, individuals with greater environmental awareness often report higher self-efficacy and specialized education, which contributes to their sense of control over ecological challenges, aligning with the TPB63.
Within the TPB framework, environmental awareness extends the theory by acting as an antecedent to PA and PBC, influencing how individuals evaluate the desirability (attitude) and feasibility (control) of sustainable behaviors41. This extension addresses TPB’s limitation in accounting for domain-specific factors like ecological sensitivity, which are crucial in sustainability contexts where intentions involve balancing economic goals with environmental preservation6. As a result, when aspiring entrepreneurs gain environmental knowledge and training, they grow more confident in their capacity to establish sustainable businesses64,65. Based on these observations, we hypothesize (H):
H1
Personal attitude positively mediates the relationship between environmental awareness and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
H2
Perceived behavioral control positively mediates the relationship between environmental awareness and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
The educational perspective: shaping sustainable personal attitudes
Education for sustainable entrepreneurship (ESE) equips students with the necessary knowledge and skills to address environmental and social challenges through entrepreneurial action38,66. Unlike traditional entrepreneurship education, ESE integrates sustainability principles, fostering an interdisciplinary mindset that combines business expertise with environmental and social responsibility4. In this context, universities in Pakistan, as centers of innovation, play a pivotal role in shaping students’ attitudes toward sustainable entrepreneurship by embedding sustainability-driven curricula67. Such education enhances students’ understanding of sustainable business practices, encouraging them to pursue ventures that contribute to global sustainability goals29,68. Moreover, previous studies confirm that ESE fosters positive attitudes, mediating the relationship between education and entrepreneurial intentions12,66. For Pakistani students, ESE is especially important, bridging theoretical knowledge and practical application in a challenging environmental and economic context. This aligns with TPB by positioning ESE as an antecedent to PA, enriching the theory’s focus on attitudinal formation by incorporating education as a cognitive driver that shapes evaluations of sustainable behaviors41. This targeted learning enhances TPB’s predictive power in sustainability domains, where intentions depend on interdisciplinary expertise beyond standard entrepreneurial skills1. This educational approach thus becomes a critical factor in shaping sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. Hence, we hypothesize:
H3
Personal attitude positively mediates the relationship between education for sustainable entrepreneurship and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
The role of social support in shaping perceived behavioral control and subjective norms
Social support, including encouragement and resources from peers, mentors, and networks, is crucial for nurturing entrepreneurial intentions69. It significantly bolsters students’ confidence in pursuing entrepreneurial ventures, especially when societal values emphasize sustainability70. Within the realm of sustainable entrepreneurship, social support validates the feasibility of launching sustainable ventures and reinforces societal expectations53. Furthermore, institutional factors such as political stability and access to resources amplify the positive influence of social support on entrepreneurial outcomes71,72. In Pakistan’s collectivist culture, social networks provide crucial guidance, enhancing students’ confidence (PBC) and their perception of social approval (SN) for sustainable ventures36. Nevertheless, the mediating pathways through which social support influences SEI remain underexplored in developing economies53,72. Extending TPB, social support serves as an antecedent to PBC and SN, addressing the theory’s limited attention to external social influences in resource-constrained settings41. This integration enlarges TPB by incorporating sociological elements that mediate how normative pressures and control perceptions drive intentions in collectivist cultures, where individual involvement is intertwined with community validation29. Therefore, we propose:
H4
Perceived behavioral control positively mediates the relationship between social support and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
H5
Subjective norms positively mediate the relationship between social support and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
The role of family support in shaping subjective norms
Family support, including emotional encouragement and material resources, is a key enabler of entrepreneurial intentions, especially in collectivist societies like Pakistan where family dynamics significantly influence decision-making36,73. Family approval shapes SN, reinforcing the perceived social legitimacy of pursuing sustainable entrepreneurship74,75. The theory of career choice, such as social cognitive approaches, suggests that family expectations guide professional decisions, particularly in contexts with limited access to formal financing38,67. In this cultural context, family support becomes a major determinant of SN. It legitimizes entrepreneurial behavior and provides reassurance, which strengthens SEI. However, empirical exploration of this pathway, particularly in sustainable entrepreneurship, remains limited. Within TPB, family support extends the theory by acting as a culture-specific antecedent to SN, enhancing its explanatory scope in non-Western contexts where familial norms dominate over individual autonomy41. This extension of TPB accounts for sociological mediators that amplify normative influences on intentions, particularly for sustainability-oriented ventures requiring long-term commitment51. To address this gap, we hypothesize:
H6
Subjective norms positively mediate the relationship between family support and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
Core TPB antecedents of sustainable entrepreneurial intentions
As outlined in Section “Theoretical foundations”, the TPB suggests that PA, PBC, and SN are primary predictors of behavioral intentions41. In sustainability contexts, these constructs reflect distinct motivations. PA represents an idealistic, ethical mindset, emphasizing optimism about sustainable ventures’ social and environmental benefits beyond economic outcomes76,77. Therefore, sustainable entrepreneurs view technological advancements as key to addressing social and environmental challenges2. SN capture social pressures from family, peers, and mentors to pursue sustainability-oriented businesses52,78. Unlike their weaker role in traditional entrepreneurial intentions79, SN significantly shape sustainable entrepreneurship, with expectations for practices like cleaner production strongly influencing behavior80. Consequently, individuals perceiving robust social support are more likely to intend to start sustainable businesses60. Individuals with high PBC exhibit confidence in launching sustainable ventures, equipped with the resources and skills to tackle complex “wicked problems” of sustainable development, making them more likely to intend to pursue sustainable entrepreneurship32,77,81,82. In Pakistan, cultural and economic contexts significantly amplify the impact of these factors on sustainable entrepreneurial intentions51. These core TPB constructs form the foundation of our model, with hypotheses testing their direct effects on SEI while integrating extensions to address TPB’s gaps in environmental and sociological domains1,41. We propose:
H7a
Personal attitude positively influences sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
H7b
Perceived behavioral control positively influences sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
H7c
Subjective norms positively influence sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
Research model
Building on hypotheses in Section “Hypothesis development and research model”, the proposed research model integrates the TPB with environmental and sociological factors to explain SEI among Pakistani university students (see Fig. 1). Environmental awareness and ESE shape PA, while social and family support influence SN and PBC, collectively mediating the relationship between external influences and SEI. In Pakistan’s socio-economic context, the model addresses critical challenges of sustainable entrepreneurship, such as the need for specialized knowledge and societal validation1,28,29,51. By combining psychological, environmental, and sociological factors, this model provides a comprehensive framework to understand and foster SEI, advancing both theoretical and practical dimensions of sustainable entrepreneurship.
Conceptual framework of the study based on hypothesized constructs
Methodology
Data collection and sampling strategy
This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional research design to investigate the factors shaping SEI among Pakistani university students. Specifically, data were collected in Lahore and Islamabad: two major academic and economic hubs hosting approximately 30 recognized public and private universities, selected for their rich educational infrastructure and demographic diversity83. Consequently, eight universities were chosen using a stratified convenience approach to ensure diversity in institutional type and disciplinary focus while maintaining fieldwork accessibility. Final-year undergraduates were targeted, as their career decision-making stage is highly relevant to TPB constructs, making them an ideal population for examining sustainable entrepreneurial intentions, consistent with prior research23,25; thus, they were recruited through faculty coordination from entrepreneurship-relevant or sustainability-oriented courses. To enhance participation across diverse student groups, a mixed-mode survey (email, WhatsApp, paper forms) was conducted between May and September 2024. Of 560 distributed questionnaires, 475 valid responses were retained after excluding incomplete submissions, yielding an 84.8% response rate. To comply with ethical standards, participant anonymity was maintained, and institutional names were not disclosed.
Questionnaire design and validation
The questionnaire was developed based on rigorous academic protocols, drawing on TPB constructs and established literature41. To ensure content validity, a two-phase process was undertaken. Initially, six experts in sustainability, entrepreneurship, SDGs, and TPB reviewed the items to confirm their theoretical and contextual relevance. Subsequently, a pre-test was administered to 50 students from five universities offering courses in sustainable entrepreneurship or related fields. This pre-test aimed to assess the clarity, relevance, and reliability of the questionnaire within the local context. The final instrument included demographic questions and 5-point Likert scale items (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) thereby measuring environmental awareness, ESE, social support, family support, PA, PBC, SN, and SEI. This comprehensive design captured key factors influencing SEI, ensuring robust data collection.
Construct measurement
To ensure reliability, all variables were measured using validated scales adapted from prior studies, tailored to the Pakistani context. Specifically, independent variables—environmental awareness, ESE, social support, and family support—were operationalized as follows: environmental awareness assessed sensitivity to ecological issues84,85, ESE measured the role of university curricula in fostering sustainable entrepreneurial intentions86,87, and social and family support was used to capture encouragement and resources from personal networks and family88. Furthermore, mediating variables—PA, PBC, and SN—were adapted from prior TPB applications6,79. Consequently, SEI, the dependent variable, was measured with the item, “I have a strong intention to establish a sustainable enterprise,” reflecting students’ sustainable entrepreneurship intentions, consistent with established TPB studies6,79. Additionally, this study included two control variables: family business background and green economy context. These variables control for alternative influences on the model’s relationships. The inclusion assumes that individuals with greater awareness and entrepreneurial self-efficacy are more likely to intend to launch sustainable business ventures40,51,89. Further details on these measures are provided in Appendix A.
Respondent demographics
Table 1 details the demographics of the 475 survey participants. Specifically, 62.9% were male and 37.1% female. Most respondents (70.7%) were aged 21–25 years, followed by 17.1% aged 26–30, 9.3% under 20, and 2.9% over 31. In terms of academic disciplines, 57.7% were from business management, 26.7% from engineering, and 15.6% from computer science. Reflecting Pakistan’s growing focus on sustainable practices, 37.9% reported a family business background, and 58.3% had exposure to a green economy context, aligning with the study’s emphasis on sociological factors.
Common method bias and statistical controls
To address potential common-method variance (CMV) and ensure unbiased measurement of TPB constructs, we implemented procedural and statistical remedies. To this end, three intention items were reverse-coded to minimize response pattern bias90. Moreover, Harman’s single-factor test confirmed no dominant factor, with the largest factor accounting for 20% of variance and eight factors explaining 55% of total variance91. Additionally, variance inflation factors (VIF) below 3.3 indicated no multicollinearity concerns in the structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis89.
Data analysis
Data were analyzed using SPSS version 24 for descriptive statistics and AMOS version 21 for covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM). Specifically, CB-SEM enabled simultaneous assessment of both the measurement and structural models, allowing for the incorporation of multiple mediators to rigorously test the hypotheses in Section “Hypothesis development and research model”. This method is particularly well-suited for theory testing and confirmation, as it provides overall model fit indices and accounts for measurement error92,93. Furthermore, the sample size (n = 475) exceeded the recommended thresholds (i.e., > 200 cases or at least 10 times the number of estimated parameters), thereby ensuring reliable parameter estimation and sufficient statistical power94. To ensure construct reliability and validity95, we adhered to guidelines: factor loadings ≥ 0.50, average variance extracted (AVE) ≥ 0.50, at least three indicators per construct, and Cronbach’s alpha ≥ 0.70. Subsequently, normality tests and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) validated the measurement model. Therefore, structural hypotheses were tested, with bootstrapping assessing the significance of indirect effects.
Results
Descriptive statistics and normality assessment
The descriptive analysis indicated strong student engagement with sustainability concepts. Specifically, ESE recorded the highest mean score (M = 3.97, SD = 0.37), followed closely by environmental awareness (M = 3.93, SD = 0.30), social support (M = 3.77, SD = 0.24), and family support (M = 3.63, SD = 0.27). Among the TPB constructs, PBC exhibited the highest mean score (M = 4.18, SD = 0.31), followed by PA (M = 4.11, SD = 0.38), SN (M = 4.12, SD = 0.33), and SEI (M = 4.03, SD = 0.34) as shown in Table 2. Furthermore, all items scored above 3.50 on a 5-point Likert scale, reflecting a robust inclination toward sustainable entrepreneurship among students. Normality checks confirmed the data’s suitability for analysis, as skewness and kurtosis values were within the acceptable ± 2.58 range, thereby ensuring reliable statistical modeling89,96. These preliminary findings provide a solid foundation for exploring the hypothesized relationships in the subsequent analysis.
Model fit and construct validity
To assess the model’s fit, internal consistency, and external validity, we employed CFA. The results indicated a satisfactory fit for the model, as reflected in the following indices: goodness-of-fit index (GFI) = 0.92, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.94, chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df) = 4.78, normed fit index (NFI) = 0.94, adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) = 0.92, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.05 (Table 3). These indices meet the recommended thresholds, reinforcing the model’s suitability for further analysis. In line with Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) two-step approach, we rigorously tested the measurement model97. The results confirmed construct reliability and validity, with factor loadings exceeding 0.67, Cronbach’s alpha values98,99 ranging from 0.70 to 0.92, and composite reliability scores above 0.81. Detailed results for each construct, including factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, average variance extracted (AVE), and variance inflation factors (VIF), are provided in Table 4, with additional item-level details available in supplementary Table 1. Furthermore, VIF values below 3.3 ruled out multicollinearity, strengthening the robustness of the model89.
Additionally, the average variance extracted (AVE) values surpassed the 0.50 threshold, confirming convergent validity. Discriminant validity was further supported by comparing the square roots of AVE values with inter-construct correlations, which demonstrated that each construct contributed uniquely to the model (Table 5).
Direct effects analysis
In our direct effects analysis, we assessed the significance of the paths linking independent variables, control variables, and the TPB constructs to SEI, as well as the direct effects of TPB constructs (PA, PBC, and SN) on SEI. The results are presented in Tables 6 and 7; Fig. 2. Environmental Awareness (EA) significantly influenced both PA (β = 0.371, t = 4.26, p < 0.001) and PBC (β = 0.061, t = 2.64, p < 0.01), suggesting that eco-conscious mindsets foster positive attitudes and enhance confidence in pursuing sustainable ventures. Similarly, ESE had a significant effect on PA (β = 0.230, t = 4.12, p < 0.01), emphasizing the critical role of sustainability-focused curricula in cultivating entrepreneurial attitudes1,52. However, social support did not have a significant impact on PBC (β = − 0.031, t = 0.71, p = 0.10), suggesting that societal encouragement alone may not sufficiently bolster confidence, particularly for non-business students36,88.
On the other hand, both social support (β = 0.210, t = 4.02, p = 0.001) and family support (β = 0.151, t = 3.21, p = 0.05) significantly influenced SN, underlining the normative influence of family and societal networks in Pakistan’s collectivist culture51. Furthermore, control variables, both family business background (β = 0.163, t = 2.71, p = 0.05) and green economy context (β = 0.182, t = 2.49, p < 0.01) positively impacted SEI, highlighting the influence of entrepreneurial exposure and market opportunities in shaping SEI2.
To address hypothesis 7, which tests the core TPB constructs, we analyzed the direct effects of PA, PBC, and SN on SEI. As shown in Table 7, PA significantly influenced SEI (β = 0.158, p < 0.05), indicating that students’ positive attitudes toward the ecological and social benefits of sustainable ventures strongly predict their intentions29. Similarly, PBC had a significant effect on SEI (β = 0.071, p < 0.01), reflecting the importance of perceived self-efficacy and resource availability in fostering sustainable entrepreneurial intentions82. SN also significantly influenced SEI (β = 0.077, p < 0.01), underscoring the role of social pressures from family, peers, and mentors in Pakistan’s collectivist culture72. These findings support hypotheses H7a, H7b, and H7c, confirming the predictive validity of TPB in the context of sustainable entrepreneurship. These results suggest that universities should prioritize sustainability education and leverage social and familial networks to enhance students’ attitudes and intentions toward sustainable ventures.
Mediation effects: TPB constructs as key pathways
Following the direct effects analysis in Section “Direct effects analysis”, this section examines how the TPB constructs—PA, PBC, and SN—mediate the relationships between external factors (EA, ESE, social support, and family support) and SEI. Using Zhao et al.’s mediation framework100 and bootstrapping with 1000 subsamples, we tested hypotheses H1–H6, with results summarized in Table 7. This analysis elucidates the pathways through which external factors influence SEI via TPB constructs, offering insights into the psychological mechanisms driving sustainable entrepreneurship in Pakistan (Table 7).
The mediation analysis reveals that PA fully mediated the relationships between EA and SEI (H1 supported; β = 0.121, p < 0.002) and between ESE and SEI (H3 supported; β = 0.142, p < 0.02). These findings highlight that eco-conscious attitudes, fostered by environmental awareness, and sustainability-focused education significantly shape students’ intentions to pursue sustainable ventures28,33. By cultivating positive attitudes toward the ecological and social benefits of sustainable entrepreneurship, EA and ESE serve as critical antecedents, aligning with TPB’s emphasis on attitude as a predictor of intention41.
Similarly mediation analysis, based on the framework of Baron and Kenny101, demonstrated that PBC fully mediated the relationship between EA and SEI (H2 supported; β = 0.067, p < 0.001), indicating that environmental awareness enhances students’ perceived confidence and resource availability for sustainable ventures when supported by targeted training12,60. However, PBC did not mediate the relationship between social support and SEI (H4 not supported; β = -0.031, p = 0.146). This suggests that social support, while valuable, may not sufficiently enhance perceived behavioral control and may have a limited or negative effect among non-business students, who often lack practical entrepreneurial training in Pakistan’s academic context36,82.
Result of the structural model.
Discussion
This study examines how environmental awareness, education for sustainable entrepreneurship, and sociological factors (such as family and social support) shape sustainable entrepreneurial intention in Pakistan’s socio-cultural context. Drawing on the TPB41, our results indicate that environmental awareness and education strengthen attitudes and perceived behavioral control, while sociological factors shape subjective norms. Although TPB suggests that intentions predict entrepreneurial behavior, this study concentrates on the antecedents of intentions, offering a basis for fostering sustainable ventures in developing economies, where environmental and economic challenges intersect. Consistent with TPB, higher attitudes, supportive subjective norms, and stronger perceived behavioral control should increase the likelihood that individuals initiate concrete entrepreneurial actions. Because PBC reflects perceived control over resources and constraints, TPB also allows a direct effect of PBC on behavior when control conditions are salient. In Pakistan’s context, factors such as access to finance, regulatory burden, and family obligations may moderate how strongly intention translates into action. By integrating these factors into the TPB framework, our findings clarify the socio-cultural and educational drivers of sustainable entrepreneurial intention, with implications for addressing economic and environmental constraints in similar contexts28,51. Future research should examine whether these intentions translate into behaviors such as opportunity scouting, prototyping, formal registration, incubator application, first sales, or resource investment within 6–12 months.
Firstly, the study tested the hypotheses H1 and H3, focusing on the role of PA as a mediator between environmental awareness, ESE, and SEI. The results affirm that PA significantly mediates the relationship between both factors and SEI. Students with higher environmental awareness tend to develop more favorable attitudes toward sustainable entrepreneurship, which in turn strengthens their intentions to pursue sustainability-driven ventures. This aligns with existing literature, suggesting that individuals with high environmental consciousness are more likely to view sustainable businesses as viable and impactful25,102. Environmental awareness, a critical driver of pro-environmental behavior, is embedded in global sustainability frameworks, including the United Nations (SDGs)72. In this study, high environmental awareness among students was shown to foster a proactive entrepreneurial mindset, validating prior findings29,103. Moreover, it supports the trend where environmentally conscious youth, particularly millennials, are increasingly drawn to businesses addressing ecological challenges28,104. Building on the role of attitudes, the mediating effect of PA in the relationship between ESE and SEI underscores the transformative potential of sustainability-focused education.
Similarly, the results confirm that ESE significantly influences students’ entrepreneurial attitudes, which in turn enhance their SEI (β = 0.142, p = 0.02). This aligns with research emphasizing the role of entrepreneurship education in fostering sustainable mindsets1,12,77. Our findings suggest that universities, particularly in Lahore and Islamabad, are uniquely positioned to foster interdisciplinary thinking by combining business acumen with environmental and social responsibility. Integrating sustainability into entrepreneurial education not only enhances students’ understanding of sustainable practices but also inspires them to develop ventures that align with global sustainability goals39. This emphasizes the need for academic institutions to go beyond traditional entrepreneurship education and embed sustainability principles across disciplines, fostering innovative and eco-conscious thinking38. Collaborations with regulatory bodies and industry stakeholders can further amplify the impact of ESE by equipping students with practical skills for launching green ventures29. Shifting to the mediating role of PBC, this study advances TPB by demonstrating the dual mediating role of PA in linking environmental awareness and ESE to SEI, offering a more integrated application of TPB in sustainability contexts41. Unlike prior research that examined individual predictors105,106, our findings reveal how EA and ESE jointly shape SEI through PA.
Next, hypotheses H2 and H4 assessed the mediating role of PBC in the relationship between environmental awareness, social support, and SEI. While PBC mediation shows that environmental awareness significantly enhances PBC (β = 0.067, p < 0.001), this alone does not foster confidence in executing sustainable ventures. This finding highlights the importance of practical, hands-on learning and skill development in enabling students to apply their knowledge and take meaningful action—particularly in Pakistan, where environmental challenges are pressing15. Although environmental awareness encourages students to engage with solution-oriented networks, it does not directly translate into the skills needed to launch sustainable ventures. This underscores the need for experiential, sustainability-focused education that builds students’ self-efficacy and behavioral capacity52. These findings resonate with Cardella et al. (2024), who observed that environmentally conscious students, especially in crisis situations like the COVID-19 pandemic, exhibited heightened entrepreneurial intentions due to their active participation in proactive and collaborative communities29.
The lack of significant mediation of social support on PBC (β = 0.031, p = 0.146) suggests that social encouragement does not substantially enhance students’ confidence or perceived ability to start sustainable ventures in Pakistan. Our finding aligns with Nguyen et al. (2020), who argue that social support alone is insufficient without tangible resources, mentorship, or skill development67. In Pakistan, social support is predominantly emotional—encouragement from family and peers—rather than instrumental, such as access to finance, networks, or structured guidance70. Families may express pride in entrepreneurial aspirations but often lack the financial capacity or expertise to provide practical backing67. A deeper exploration, as provided by Noor et al. (2023), reveals why this mediation fails. Their study shows that job insecurity during COVID-19 drives green entrepreneurial intentions, which align with sustainable entrepreneurial intentions due to their shared focus on environmentally conscious ventures, through entrepreneurial passion, but only when environmental knowledge is high107. Similarly, social support in Pakistan requires capability-building factors to translate into actionable intentions. Martins et al. (2023) find that family, peer, and institutional support raise entrepreneurial intentions directly among Pakistani students, but capability factors like skills knowledge, risk ability, and innovativeness are pivotal channels, aligning with our interpretation that encouragement must be complemented by tangible enablers to enhance PBC105. Specifically, Sarwar et al. (2023) found that among Pakistani female students, social support moderates the effect of psychological capital (e.g., self-efficacy, optimism) on intentions via commitment, indicating that encouragement is most effective when paired with strong internal resources. Gendered constraints, such as restricted mobility and access to networks, further limit social support’s efficacy for female students108. Despite the insignificant mediation, PBC remains a key determinant of SEI, supporting recent research that emphasizes PBC as central to entrepreneurial contexts1,36,72.
Turning to normative influences, the study tested hypotheses H5 and H6, proposing that SN mediate the relationships between social support, family support, and SEI. Our results confirm that both social support and family support exert significant indirect effects on SEI through SN, with social support → SN → SEI (β = 0.049, p = 0.005) and family support → SN → SEI (β = 0.094, p = 0.002). These findings emphasize the crucial role of normative influences in shaping SEI, particularly in collectivist cultures like Pakistan, where familial and societal expectations significantly impact entrepreneurial behaviors36,51. In Pakistan’s family-centric culture, emotional and financial backing from relatives strongly shapes students’ perceptions of social approval, which in turn influences their entrepreneurial intentions15,28. The full mediation role of SN underscores the importance of perceived social acceptance in transforming family and social support into entrepreneurial intentions, contrasting with traditional models where SN exerts a weaker influence67,109. The high-risk nature of sustainable entrepreneurship amplifies the need for validation and support from social networks, particularly in developing economies like Pakistan, where students may prioritize family and peer approval over their own motivations11,28,42.
Hypothesis H7, which tested the dimensions of TPB in predicting SEI, confirmed that the core TPB constructs—PA, PBC, and SN—each have significant positive direct effects on SEI. Specifically, PA → SEI (β = 0.158, p < 0.05), PBC → SEI (β = 0.071, p < 0.01), and SN → SEI (β = 0.077, p < 0.01), reaffirming the theoretical robustness and predictive validity of the TPB framework in sustainability-oriented entrepreneurial contexts29,40,51. Among these predictors, PA emerged as the most influential, reflecting students’ optimism about the ecological and social impacts of sustainable ventures29. While PBC also predicted SEI, its influence underscores the significance of practical skills and experiential learning to navigate the complexities of sustainable entrepreneurship82. Moreover, subjective norms—strengthened by Pakistan’s collectivist values—reinforce the significance of social validation in shaping entrepreneurial aspirations72,110. Collectively, these findings enrich the TPB by incorporating environmental and sociological factors, providing a tailored framework for understanding SEI in emerging economies25,42.
Beyond the core TPB constructs, the study examined control variables such as family business background and exposure to a green economy, which significantly influenced SEI. Students from entrepreneurial families demonstrated higher SEI, consistent with prior research that highlights the impact of entrepreneurial role models1,67. Similarly, students with exposure to green economic practices showed stronger intentions to pursue sustainable entrepreneurship, reflecting Pakistan’s growing market for sustainable technologies and the increasing emphasis on green innovations. These findings align with previous studies2,39, emphasizing the synergy between individual, cultural, and market-driven factors in shaping sustainable entrepreneurial aspirations.
In summary, this study advances the theory of planned behavior by integrating environmental awareness and sociological constructs to explain SEI within Pakistan’s resource-constrained context. It demonstrates how PA and PBC mediate the effects of environmental awareness and sustainable education on SEI, while social and family support add new variables for SEI development. Although social and family support influence SEI only through SN and not PBC—emphasizing the need for tangible resources such as mentorship and skills training—this research refines TPB by offering a framework attuned to the socio-economic realities of developing economies. The findings advocate for integrative educational and policy strategies that embed environmental values and resource-based enablers to foster sustainable entrepreneurship.
Theoretical implications
This study significantly advances the theoretical development of sustainable entrepreneurship by extending the TPB and addressing key research gaps in SEI. Specifically, by integrating environmental awareness and sociological dimensions as antecedents, it examines how PA, PBC, and SN mediate SEI, thereby enhancing TPB’s applicability in developing economies where its application has been limited28,111.
Moreover, environmental awareness strengthens PA and PBC, while ESE primarily strengthens PA; together these pathways positively influence SEI51. These finding challenges traditional TPB models, which often treat awareness as a peripheral factor, by positioning it as a central driver of entrepreneurial intentions2. Consequently, integrating sustainability into educational frameworks fosters mindsets aligned with sustainable development goals, reinforcing the pivotal role of education in shaping sustainable entrepreneurial behavior1,6. Furthermore, the study refines TPB by highlighting the indirect influence of family and social support on SEI through SN, emphasizing the role of cultural context in collectivist societies like Pakistan. Here, normative pressures exert a stronger impact on SEI than PBC, identifying specific pathways for SN’s influence in such settings1,11,38,51.
Additionally, introducing the green economy context as a control variable addresses a gap in TPB by incorporating macro-level economic and environmental factors. This approach provides novel insights into how market opportunities shape SEI in developing economies, where sustainability is increasingly vital104. Collectively, these advancements establish a robust foundation for developing actionable strategies to promote sustainable entrepreneurship.
Practical implications
Building on these theoretical insights, this study offers evidence-based strategies for policymakers, educators, and institutional leaders to enhance SEI among students in Pakistan and similar developing economies by integrating environmental awareness, ESE, and social support into a cohesive framework. The significant influence of environmental awareness on PA and PBC highlights the need for ecological literacy. Policymakers should prioritize environmental education within national curricula and support public awareness campaigns to normalize sustainable entrepreneurship, fostering a mindset among future entrepreneurs to pursue green ventures. The positive impact of ESE on PA underscores universities’ pivotal role in embedding sustainability principles into entrepreneurship programs. Interdisciplinary curricula, campus sustainability initiatives, and faculty development programs focused on sustainability can instill a pro-sustainability mindset, encouraging students’ active engagement in sustainable entrepreneurial actions. Additionally, the green economy context shapes SEI, necessitating eco-friendly institutional environments. Universities should invest in green infrastructure and innovation hubs to create conducive settings for sustainable business ventures, aligning academic environments with market-driven sustainability goals.
In Pakistan’s collectivist culture, social and family support significantly shape SEI through SN. Community-based interventions, such as family engagement programs and mentorship from local entrepreneurs, can strengthen SN, fostering a supportive ecosystem for sustainable entrepreneurship. These social networks are crucial for validating entrepreneurial intentions, particularly in resource-constrained settings, and should be actively nurtured to enhance students’ confidence and social networks.
Finally, students with a family business background show stronger SEI, suggesting that educational institutions should leverage entrepreneurial families through mentoring programs. Promoting family-owned businesses and sharing their success stories can normalize sustainable entrepreneurship as a viable career path, inspiring students in developing economies to pursue ventures that balance economic, social, and environmental goals.
Conclusion
We investigated two research questions: The first examined whether the constructs from the theory of planned behavior mediate the effects of environmental awareness, education for sustainable entrepreneurship, social support, and family support on sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. The second tested whether the constructs from the theory of planned behavior directly influence sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. We surveyed 475 final-year undergraduates in Lahore and Islamabad between May and September 2024 using validated scales, assessed the measurement model with confirmatory factor analysis, checked for common method bias and multicollinearity, and estimated a covariance-based structural equation model with bootstrapped mediation. For research question 1, the mediation results supported hypothesis 1 (EnvA → PA → SEI), hypothesis 2 (EnvA → PBC → SEI), hypothesis 3 (ESE → PA → SEI), hypothesis 5 (SS → SN → SEI), and hypothesis 6 (FS → SN → SEI), while hypothesis 4 (SS → PBC → SEI) was not supported. For research question 2, all core theory of planned behavior paths were significant: H7a (PA→SEI), H7b (PBC→SEI), and H7c (SN→SEI). Students with a family business background and with exposure to the green economy reported higher sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. These findings address the identified gaps by integrating environmental and educational antecedents into the theory of planned behavior and clarifying how family and social support operate in a collectivist, developing economy, with implications for curriculum design, family engagement, and policy to foster green venture creation.
Limitations and future prospects
This study provides valuable insights into sustainable entrepreneurial intentions but has limitations that offer directions for future research. First, the sample, limited to final-year students from universities in Lahore and Islamabad, may not reflect perspectives from other regions or institutional backgrounds, despite these cities being academic and economic hubs. Future studies could include participants from diverse provinces, including rural areas, and compare data from public and private universities to enhance generalizability. Second, our study examines sustainable entrepreneurial intentions, future research should extend the analysis to actual entrepreneurial behaviors in order to validate the intention–behavior linkage emphasized in the TPB framework. Third, to address this constraint, the study examines mediating variables within the theory of planned behavior framework but overlooks potential moderators, such as entrepreneurial self-efficacy, digital literacy, or social capital, which could influence the relationships between environmental and sociological factors and SEI. Incorporating these moderators in future research could strengthen the model’s explanatory power. Fourth, building on this finding, the non-significant effect of social support on perceived behavioral control, both directly and as a mediator, warrants further exploration. Researchers might investigate whether contextual factors—such as cultural settings, types of social support, or behavioral domains—moderate this relationship. Analyzing social support’s emotional, informational, and instrumental components could reveal its nuanced role in shaping PBC. Finally, the study does not fully explore the broader policy and socio-economic environment affecting sustainable entrepreneurship. Future research should examine factors like access to green financing, government regulations, and cultural norms to better understand what facilitates or constrains the growth of sustainable ventures in emerging markets.
Data availability
The data supporting the findings of this study are included within the article and its supplementary files. Additional data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to ethical restrictions.
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The research is supported by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2025R4), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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N.Y.: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Writing—original draft, Software. Q.X. and S.Y.: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing—review & editing. W.Y.: Writing—original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Project administration. S.S.: Funding acquisition, Writing—review & editing H.K.A.: Funding acquisition, Writing—review & editing. R.R.B.: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Writing—original draft.
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Yasir, N., Xiaohong, Q., Yi, S. et al. Environmental and sociological factors shape sustainable entrepreneurial intentions among Pakistani university students. Sci Rep 15, 39293 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-22930-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-22930-2
