Table 1 Parameter settings for discrete element simulation.

Poisson ratio

0.3

0.25

0.394

Shear modulus (Pa)

5.0 × 107

1.0 × 107

3.18 × 108

Density (kg m³)

2600

1861

1240

Static friction coefficient (with fertilizer particles)

0.66

0.30

0.50

Rolling friction coefficient (with fertilizer particles)

0.18

0.1

0.01

Restitution coefficient (with fertilizer particles)

0.40

0.11

0.50

Static friction coefficient (with soil particles)

0.68

0.50

0.20

Rolling friction coefficient (with soil particles)

0.27

0.01

0.02

Restitution coefficient (with soil particles)

0.21

0.30

0.10