Table 3 Comparison between probabilistic and deterministic finality.

Used in

PoW, some PoS (e.g., Nakamoto-style)

PBFT, Tendermint, HotStuff

Finality guarantee

Statistical

Absolute (cryptographic + quorum)

Time to finality

Depends on \(k\), 1–60 min

1–2 rounds ( 1–3 seconds)

Rollback risk

Exists, diminishes with depth

None, unless \(> \frac{n}{3}\) validators are malicious

Latency impact

High

Low

Suitability for P2P energy

Low (delays in billing/settlement)

High (supports real-time clearing)