Table 4 Simulation abstractions used for each consensus protocol.

PoW

Modeled mining competition via nonce search; block-generation times treated as exponentially distributed random variables¹⁹

PoS

Simulated stake-weighted pseudo-random validator selection for each slot³¹

DPoS

Implemented deterministic round-robin scheduling among the N delegates with the highest on-chain vote weight³²

PBFT

Simulated the classic three-phase Pre-prepare–prepare–commit vote exchange, incurring \(O(n^{2})\) message complexity³³

Raft

Modeled leader election using independently randomised election time-outs and heart-beat messages for log replication³⁴

Tendermint

Implemented three voting rounds (Proposal, Pre-vote, Pre-commit) with rotating proposers and timeout-driven view changes for liveness recovery³⁵

PoET

Simulated Intel SGX–backed random wait times that elect the block proposer once the first timer expires.³⁶