Table 2 Mixed-effects ordinal logistic regression models of the association between neurodevelopmental disorders and poor academic performance on language subjects.

From: The negative impact of neurodevelopmental disorders and multiple co-occurring conditions on academic performance of school-age children and adolescents

 

First language

Foreign language

OR (95% CI)

OR (95% CI)

Model 0

Model 1

Model 2

Model 0

Model 1

Model 2

Neurodevelopmental disorders

 Intellectual disabilities

(Ref. No)

10.0 (5.44–18.5)*

3.81 (1.79–8.09)*

9.41 (4.11–21.6)*

7.86 (4.37–14.1)*

2.67 (1.25–5.71)*

4.69 (2.13–10.3)*

 Communication disorders

(Ref. No)

6.56 (5.07–8.48)*

3.89 (2.89–5.23)*

2.95 (2.16–4.03)*

4.87 (3.82–6.20)*

3.20 (2.42–4.25)*

2.50 (1.87–3.34)*

 Autism spectrum disorders

(Ref. No)

2.78 (2.00-3.87)*

1.48 (1.02–2.15)*

1.39 (0.94–2.07)

2.66 (1.93–3.66)*

1.45 (1.01–2.08)*

1.37 (0.95–1.99)*

 ADHD (Ref. No)

8.49 (7.49–9.62)*

5.76 (5.00-6.64)*

4.65 (4.02–5.37)*

7.50 (6.66–8.46)*

5.10 (4.45–5.83)*

4.25 (3.70–4.88)*

 Specific learning disorder

(Ref. No)

9.75 (8.58–11.1)*

7.05 (6.10–8.14)*

5.97 (5.15–6.92)*

7.09 (6.29–7.99)*

5.13 (4.48–5.87)*

4.32 (3.76–4.96)*

 Motor disorders

(Ref. No)

3.06 (1.97–4.76)*

2.67 (1.66–4.28)*

1.56 (0.95–2.56)

2.65 (1.74–4.04)*

2.19 (1.39–3.43)*

1.34 (0.84–2.14)

Sociodemographic factors

 Gender (Ref. Girls)

2.01 (1.85–2.18)*

 

1.75 (1.59–1.93)*

1.92 (1.77–2.09)*

 

1.61 (1.47–1.77)*

 Age

1.11 (1.08–1.13)*

 

1.09 (1.06–1.11)*

1.11 (1.08–1.13)*

 

1.08 (1.05–1.10)*

 Socioeconomic status

0.96 (0.95–0.96)*

 

0.97 (0.97–0.97)*

0.95 (0.95–0.96)*

 

0.97 (0.96–0.97)*

 Ethnicity (Ref. Spanish)

1.82 (1.64–2.03)*

 

1.25 (1.11–1.41)*

1.43 (1.29–1.59)*

 

0.91 (0.81–1.02)

 Parental divorce/separation

(Ref. No)

2.10 (1.87–2.35)*

 

1.53 (1.35–1.74)*

2.08 (1.86–2.32)*

 

1.48 (1.30–1.67)*

School-related variables

 Educational support

(Ref. No)

6.26 (5.42–7.23)*

 

2.48 (2.11–2.92)*

5.03 (4.39–5.77)*

 

2.00 (1.72–2.33)*

 Grade retention

(Ref. No)

10.7 (8.14–14.1)*

 

2.60 (1.91–3.55)*

10.6 (8.21–13.7)*

 

3.66 (2.73–4.89)*

  1. OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
  2. Model 0: crude analysis; Model 1: adjusted for sociodemographic factors and school-related variables. Model 2: adjusted for sociodemographic factors, school-related variables, and other neurodevelopmental disorders.
  3. Covariate estimates for Model 1 are omitted, as each neurodevelopmental disorder was analyzed separately with adjustment for the same set of background characteristics, yielding distinct coefficients across disorder-specific models.
  4. *Significant at a FDR of 5% based on the number of predictors included within each model.
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