Fig. 1

(a) Location map of the study area with elevation. The map was generated in ArcGIS 10.8 (Esri, USA; https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/products/arcgis-desktop/overview) using SRTM DEM dataset downloaded from the USGS Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). Elevation values (in meters) were derived from the DEM and visualized through a colour-coded elevation gradient. Administrative boundary shapefiles were obtained from the Survey of India (https://onlinemaps.surveyofindia.gov.in/Digital_Product_Show.aspx). All spatial datasets were processed and cartographically refined within the ArcGIS environment. (b) Impact of southwest monsoon—driven aeolian sand migration resulting in vegetation loss and land degradation in the study area. (c) Encroachment of aeolian sands onto agricultural fallow lands, contributing to land degradation and desertification in the study area. (d) Aeolian sand migration occurring in the rain shadow regions of the study area, illustrating ongoing land degradation. (e) Desertification induced by aeolian sand migration in the study area. (f) Cross-sectional view of sand dunes showing stratified sedimentary layers in the study area. (g) Sand dunes in the study region and their migration toward agricultural fields (Field photographs taken by the authors during ground surveys across the study area).