Fig. 5

Co-occurrence network analysis of the ARGs-MGEs and microbial taxa present at a normalized abundance of ≥ 2% in at least one hospital wastewater sample (Figs. 2 and S1). Node colors differentiate ARGs, MGEs, and phyla types. Node size is proportional to the number of connections (degree). Edges represent strong and statistically significant positive correlations (Spearman’s ρ > 0.55 and P < 0.05), with edge width proportional to correlation strength.