Fig. 3

The average performance of five machine learning models evaluated through external 5-fold cross-validation. The solid line represents the average ROC curve, and the shaded area indicates the 95% confidence interval. The AUC values are: LR 0.813 ± 0.063, RF 0.819 ± 0.051, XGBoost 0.822 ± 0.032, LightGBM 0.842 ± 0.038, SVM 0.806 ± 0.078.