Table 2 The weighted prevalence of depression among U.S adults pre and during COVID-19 pandemic based on NHANES data collected in 2017-March 2020 cycle and August 2021-August 2023 cycle.

From: Influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on the prevalence of depression in U.S. adults: evidence from NHANES

Variable

The weighted prevalence of depression. % (95% CI)

OR (95% CI)

Pre COVID-19

(2017-Mar 2020)

During COVID-19

(Aug 2021-Aug 2023)

Crude OR

Adjusted OR a

Overall

8.54 (7.49, 9.59)

12.39 (10.63, 14.14)

1.51 (1.22, 1.88) *

1.58 (1.28, 1.94) *

Gender

    

  Male

6.58 (5.66, 7.50)

10.09 (8.06, 12.12)

1.59 (1.21, 2.10) *

1.81 (1,37, 2.40) *

  Female

10.41 (8.67, 12.15)

14.66 (12.49, 16.83)

1.48 (1.14, 1.92) *

1.51 (1,16, 1.96) *

Race

    

  Mexican American

7.23 (4.72, 9.73)

14.60 (11.26, 17.94)

2.20 (1.36, 3.54) *

2.66 (1,31, 5.38) *

  Other Hispanic

10.15 (7.97, 12.34)

13.56 (10.77, 16.35)

1.39 (0.98, 1.97)

1.54 (1,02, 2.31) *

  Non-Hispanic white

8.46 (7.03, 9.89)

11.78 (9.88, 13.68)

1.44 (1.10, 1.89) *

1.56 (1,19, 2.05) *

  Non-Hispanic black

8.71 (7.23, 10.19)

14.12 (10.16, 18.07)

1.72 (1.17, 2.54) *

1.94 (1,18, 3.19) *

  Other races

8.74 (6.26, 11.22)

11.97 (8.80, 15.15)

1.42 (0.91, 2.22)

1.31 (0,85, 2.03)

Age

    

  < 39

9.40 (7.39, 11.41)

16.55 (12.85, 20.26)

1.91 (1.32, 2.76) *

2.28 (1,59, 3.26) *

  40–59

8.50 (7.39, 9.62)

10.99 (9.31, 12.67)

1.33 (1.05, 1.67) *

1.34 (1,04, 1.72) *

  ≥ 60

7.54 (5.93, 9.15)

9.15 (7.45, 10.85)

1.24 (0.90, 1.70)

1.32 (0,96, 1.82)

Education

    

  Less than high school

7.08 (5.89, 8.27)

10.77 (8.89, 12.65)

1.59 (1.20, 2.09) *

1.71 (1,35, 2.17) *

  High school or equivalent

10.17 (8.22, 12.13)

14.54 (12.09, 16.99)

1.50 (1.11, 2.03) *

1.57 (1,13, 2.17) *

  Above high school

13.24 (9.99, 16.50)

18.40 (14.72, 22.09)

1.48 (1.00, 2.18) *

1.36 (0,89, 2.08)

Marital status

    

  Married/Living with a partner

6.37 (5.49, 7.24)

8.84 (7.01, 10.68)

1.43 (1.08, 1.89) *

1.56 (1,14, 2.12) *

  Widowed/Divorced/Separated

12.80 (10.61, 14.99)

16.07 (14.00, 18.13)

1.30 (1.01, 1.69) *

1.48 (1,12, 1.94) *

  Never married

11.47 (8.20, 14.74)

19.19 (15.52, 22.86)

1.83 (1.21, 2.77) *

2.00 (1,31, 3.03) *

PIR

    

  < 1.30

15.83 (12.95, 18.72)

22.23 (19.03, 25.42)

1.52 (1.13, 2.04) *

1.52 (1,12, 2.06) *

  1.30 ~ 3.49

9.84 (8.01, 11.66)

14.46 (11.85, 17.07)

1.55 (1.14, 2.10) *

1.64 (1,22, 2.22) *

  > 3.49

4.76 (3.68, 5.84)

7.00 (5.33, 8.68)

1.51 (1.05, 2.16) *

1.75 (1,17, 2.61) *

BMI

    

  < 25.0

8.81 (6.86, 10.76)

11.59 (8.84, 14.34)

1.35 (0.93, 1.97)

1.56 (1.10, 2.22) *

  25.0 ~ 29.9

6.09 (4.90, 7.28)

10.73 (8.62, 12.84)

1.85 (1.35, 2.53) *

2.01 (1.46, 2.76) *

  > 29.9

10.22 (8.75, 11.68)

14.29 (11.89, 16.68)

1.46 (1.13, 1.90) *

1.55 (1.15, 2.08) *

Hypertension

    

  No

6.84 (5.66, 8.02)

12.14 (10.35, 13.93)

1.88 (1.45, 2.43) *

2.05 (1,61, 2.60) *

  Yes

12.09 (10.63, 13.55)

12.97 (10.68, 15.25)

1.08 (0.84, 1.39)

1.13 (0,87, 1.46)

Diabetes

    

  No

7.92 (6.80, 9.05)

11.71 (9.82, 13.61)

1.54 (1.20, 1.97) *

1.71 (1,35, 2.15) *

  Yes

13.14 (10.28, 16.01)

17.55 (14.13, 20.98)

1.41 (0.99, 2.01)

1.37 (0,93, 2.03)

Alcohol

    

  Mild

9.14 (7.76, 10.53)

12.86 (11.09, 14.63)

1.47 (1.16, 1.86) *

1.58 (1,23, 2.03) *

  Moderate

6.25 (3.79, 8.72)

11.43 (6.34, 16.53)

1.94 (0.98, 3.81)

2.65 (1,37, 5.12) *

  Heavy

8.53 (7.08, 9.98)

12.14 (10.06, 14.22)

1.48 (1.12, 1.96) *

1.53 (1,18, 1.98) *

Smoke

    

  No

5.92 (5.09, 6.75)

11.14 (9.46, 12.82)

1.99 (1.58, 2.51) *

2.06 (1,60, 2.65) *

  Yes

11.98 (10.00, 13.95)

14.44 (11.77, 17.11)

1.24 (0.92, 1.67)

1.31 (0,95, 1.82)

  1. Note: CI: confidence interval; OR: odds ratio.
  2. a Odds ratio after adjusting for eleven covariates (gender, race, age, education, marital status, PIR, BMI, hypertension, diabetes, alcohol and smoke) for overall prevalence of depression, and after adjusting for remaining ten covariates for subgroup prevalence of depression.
  3. * P < 0.05.
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