Introduction

With the continuous development of the global economy and the acceleration of urbanization, the evolution of agricultural functions and their driving factors has gradually become a focus of attention in the international academic community1,2. The village is the basic unit of agricultural production, and changes in its agricultural functions are closely related to the livelihoods of local farmers and the development of the rural economy3,4,5. They also have far-reaching implications for global food security, environmental protection, and sustainable development6,7. Therefore, deeply exploring the process and driving factors of the evolution of agricultural functions at the village level is highly important for understanding the dynamic mechanisms of agricultural development, formulating scientific and reasonable agricultural policies, and promoting the sustainable development of global agriculture.

Multifunctional agriculture breaks the deadlock between the dichotomy of productionism and postproductionism in agriculture, allowing for the multidimensional coexistence of productionist and postproductionism actions and ideas8,9. The agricultural development paradigm has shifted from productionism to postproductionism to multifunctional agriculture10. Multifunctionality is a conceptual domain that transitions from the two extremes of production-oriented and nonproduction-oriented agriculture. Compared with productionism and nonproductionism, this spatial transition model better encapsulates the temporal nonlinearity, spatial heterogeneity, global complexity, and structural institutional inconsistency of global agriculture and rural decision making11. From a human geographical spatial perspective, multifunctionality can be understood as a spatially complex nested hierarchical structure12. The farm is the most important spatial scale for multifunctional action, where multifunctionality is expressed “directly” at lower geographic scales, and “indirectly” at regional, national, and global scales.

Early research often emphasized the primary productive functions of agriculture, focusing on food security and survival needs13,14. However, with the advancement of globalization and economic liberalization, the multifunctionality of agriculture has gradually been recognized15,16,17. Scholars have begun to explore how agriculture contributes to environmental sustainability18,19,20, rural development21,22,23, and the preservation of cultural heritage24,25. The drivers of the evolution of agricultural functions are considered diverse and interrelated26. Economic factors, such as market integration and policy shifts, have played important roles in reshaping agricultural landscapes and practices27. Social changes, including population growth and urbanization, have also affected agricultural functions by altering demand patterns and labour availability28. Furthermore, environmental factors such as climate change and land degradation, constrain agricultural productivity and sustainability29,30,31. Recent research highlights the importance of technological innovation and institutional reform in driving the evolution of agricultural functions32,33. Advances in agricultural technology enhance productivity and efficiency, enabling farmers to diversify into nonfood crops and nonagricultural activities. Institutional reforms, such as land ownership policies and marketing arrangements, also influence agricultural functions by affecting the incentives and constraints faced by farmers34,35,36.

Despite these advances, there are still gaps in understanding the evolution of agricultural functions at the village microscale. Future research should focus on identifying patterns of agricultural function change at this scale, the interactions between different driving factors, and their relative importance over time. Additionally, it is necessary to consider the heterogeneity of agricultural systems, the diversity of farmers’ preference strategies, and the relationships among various stakeholders involved in the different functions of agriculture. By filling these knowledge gaps, we can gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the evolution of agricultural functions and its impact on rural development and sustainability37,38.

In recent years, scholars at home and abroad have conducted extensive and in-depth studies on the evaluation of agricultural functions and their driving factors39,40. Through the application of interdisciplinary research methods and tools, they revealed the spatial heterogeneity, temporal dynamics, and complexity of the evolution of agricultural functions and explored the mechanism of action of multiple driving factors, such as nature, economy, society, and policy41,42,43,44,45,46. However, existing research still has many shortcomings and controversies, such as single research scales, difficulties in obtaining data, and limited analytical methods. Therefore, this paper aims to conduct a systematic and in-depth study of the evolutionary process and driving factors of agricultural functions at the village scale by integrating the use of geographic information systems (GISs), remote sensing technology, and field surveys to provide a scientific basis and decision support for promoting the sustainable development of global agriculture.

The study begins by analysing the research background and significance, followed by a literature review on agricultural functions. It then examines the connotations and theoretical underpinnings of village-scale agricultural functions, presents an overview of the study area and data sources, and examines the characteristics and drivers of the evolution of agricultural functions at the village level. Finally, the findings are discussed, and conclusions are drawn. The aim is to uncover the patterns and influencing factors of the evolution of agricultural functions at the village scale, inform targeted agricultural policies and contribute to the sustainable development of global agriculture.

Connotation and theoretical basis of agricultural functions at the village scale

Connotations of agricultural functions at the village scale

Village scale agricultural functions refer to the functional roles of agricultural production activities within the village, serving both the development needs of the village as a whole and meeting the needs of agricultural functions outside the village, mainly in the functions of agricultural product supply, economic development, social security, ecological service, and leisure and culture. Agricultural functions at the village scale are not limited to the traditional functions of supplying agricultural products and economic development; it is an agricultural system that integrates a variety of interwoven functions. From a macro perspective, it is interrelated with and influences the agricultural and nonagricultural industries in the surrounding areas. At the micro level, the agricultural function means that agricultural activities must satisfy the multiple needs of farmers. Agricultural function at the village level breaks through the dichotomy of productivism and postproductivism, where farmers can either adopt productivist approaches, such as efficient agricultural cultivation techniques to improve production and ensure food security, or postproductivist approaches, such as developing organic agriculture, focusing on ecological protection and enhancing the quality of agricultural products. In the transition from macro to micro functions of agriculture, external macro factors, such as national and regional policies and market demand, are crystallized into village development plans and practical actions by villagers.

The agricultural product supply function (APF) at the village scale refers to the total volume of agricultural products produced by farming activities, primarily serving as an external functionality to meet the demands of entities outside the village. Within the confines of the village, the demand for locally grown agricultural products is limited. With economic development, there is a greater tendency for the supply of these products to cater to the needs of populations beyond the village boundaries. For example, in some villages where grain cultivation is prevalent, the migration of the rural population for work and changes in dietary structure have led to a significant reduction in internal consumption within the village scope. Coupled with consistently stable increases in grain production, farmers’ enthusiasm for storing grain has gradually diminished, leading many to eventually sell their surplus. For cash crops, the demand for their functions as agricultural products is primarily directed towards markets outside the village. In this study, the APF is characterized by the degree of commercialization of agricultural products. A higher degree of commercialization indicates a stronger APF, and vice versa.

The economic development function (EDF) of agriculture at the village scale refers to generating economic benefits, increasing farmer income, and driving village economic growth from agricultural production activities. This function encompasses the role of agricultural production activities in boosting economic development within the village boundary, primarily achieved through activities, such as grain production, specialized fruit and vegetable cultivation, nursery stock breeding, and livestock development, to obtain economic returns. In villages specializing in certain types of plantations, the higher the level of specialization, the more singular the sources of income within the village, and the greater the role of agricultural income in the economic development of the village. The EDF at the village scale is measured by the proportion of agricultural income in the total village income; a higher proportion reflects a stronger EDF, and vice versa.

The social security function (SSF) of agriculture at the village scale refers to its role in providing employment opportunities and safeguarding the basic livelihoods of farmers within the village domain. With the continuous deepening of reform and opening up, and the rapid advancement of urbanization and industrialization, most farmers have chosen to migrate for work. Those intending and able to settle in cities have done so, significantly reducing agriculture’s role in ensuring livelihoods. For example, in plains where traditional food crop cultivation predominates, there is a notable application of mechanized operations such as machine planting and harvesting, which greatly replaces labour, thereby weakening the social security function of agriculture. Conversely, for some labour-intensive crop farms, the level of mechanization is not high, leading to a substantial demand for labour; thus, agriculture plays a stronger social security role. The SSF is represented by the ratio of the agricultural labor force to the total village population, where a higher ratio signifies a stronger SSF, and vice versa.

The ecological service function (ESF) of agriculture at the village scale refers to the role that agriculture plays in conserving water sources, maintaining soil and water, and purifying the environment, while also including the negative environmental effects arising from agricultural production activities. The ecological service function of agriculture at the village scale not only serves villagers but also provides ecological value to external entities. Villages with relatively high proportions of land cover types, such as forests, grasslands, and water bodies, tend to have relatively strong agricultural ecological service functions. In contrast, villages with intensive agricultural development and high use of fertilizers and pesticides exhibit significant negative ecological effects, leading to weaker ecological service functions of agriculture. The ESF is evaluated using the proportion of forestland, grassland, and water body areas, combined with the per-mu (0.067 hectares) usage of fertilizers, pesticides, and plastic mulch. A larger proportion of ecological land cover and lower per-mu chemical input correspond to a stronger ESF, and vice versa.

The leisure and cultural functions (LCF) of agriculture at the village scale refer primarily to the role that village agricultural resources play in leisure tourism, entertainment picking, farm experience activities, and cultural inheritance. These functions of agriculture are a product of socioeconomic development reaching a certain stage; the more developed the economy is, the greater the demand for the recreational and cultural aspects of agriculture. Agricultural sightseeing to orchards, farm experience activities, agritainments, and rural complexes are important ways to realize these functions. The LCF is assessed by the presence of income-generating activities such as agricultural tourism, sightseeing, and fruit-picking, with such activities indicating a stronger LCF.

Stage theory of the evolution of agricultural functions

The evolution of agricultural functions is significantly influenced by the stage of economic and social development, exhibiting distinct phasic characteristics47,48,49,50. The importance of multifunctionality in agriculture varies continuously across different stages of economic development51. For specific regions, the emphasis on the multifunctionality of agriculture varies during different stages of economic development (Fig. 1). In the early stages of economic development, agriculture’s primary functions are providing financial accumulation for industrial development and alleviating poverty, hunger, and malnutrition. During the economic take-off stage, the role of the agricultural economy has strengthened, with labour-intensive crop farming and livestock industries rapidly developing, and increasing demands for meat, eggs, dairy, fruits and vegetables. The social security function of agriculture remains important during this phase. As the economy moves towards maturity, there is a growing demand for high-quality agricultural products and leisure and scenic functions associated with agriculture. In the advanced stage of economic development, the difference in labour productivity between the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors becomes less significant; agriculture becomes a free occupational choice, and its existence, heritage, and choice values become the main functions.

Fig. 1
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Schematic of the stages of the evolution of agricultural function.

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From the perspective of specific agricultural functions, the strength of agricultural functions varies at different stages of economic development (Fig. 2). In the early stage of economic development, households are heavily reliant on agriculture, with its functions of providing foodstuffs and offering social security being particularly strong. The economic driving force of agriculture is limited at this time, with its function of economic development maintaining a moderate intensity. During this phase, there is less use of fertilizers and pesticides, and the ecosystem services provided by agriculture are robust. Owing to lower levels of economic development and societal consumer demand, agriculture’s recreational and cultural functions are quite weak. During the economic take-off stage, agriculture’s economic development function strengthens, whereas the agricultural product supply function remains strong. As nonagricultural employment opportunities increase, the social security function of agriculture begins to diminish. Owing to the intensive use of chemical inputs, such as pesticides and fertilizers, along with increased agricultural development intensity, the ecosystem service function of agriculture has significantly decreased. Moreover, the recreational and cultural functions of agriculture have started to strengthen. As economies move towards maturity, the supply function of agricultural products stabilizes at a medium level, with an increasing demand for high-quality agricultural goods and a decreasing need for standard products. At this stage, the economic development and the social security functions of agriculture are relatively weak, and the share of agriculture in the national economy has declined. There is a genuine push towards reducing the use of fertilizers and pesticides, leading to an increase in the number of ecosystem services provided by agriculture. As socioeconomic development and improvements in the material living standards of urban and rural residents advance, the demand for the leisure and cultural functions of agriculture intensifies further. In the advanced stage of economic development, agriculture accounts for a low proportion of the national economy, with minimal contributions to the supply of agricultural products, economic development, and social security functions. The implementation of fertilizer and pesticide reduction policies has yielded significant results, and the ecological service functions of agriculture continue to strengthen. Agriculture ceases to be a forced or unavoidable choice for livelihoods but becomes a voluntary career option. The leisure and cultural functions of agriculture are particularly prominent.

Fig. 2
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Changes in the functions of agriculture at different stages of economic development.

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Resource endowment theory of the evolution of agricultural functions

The level of agricultural endowment greatly influences the strength of various agricultural functions at the village scale. In villages with rich agricultural endowments, the commoditization of farm products is high, and the provisioning function of agriculture in terms of food and fibre is quite pronounced. However, owing to intensive agricultural development and insufficient ecological space, the ecological service function of agriculture tends to be weaker. Conversely, in villages with poor agricultural endowments, farm products often rely on external procurement, resulting in a less robust provisioning function for staples such as grains and vegetables. With lower levels of agricultural development and ample ecological space, these areas have a comparative advantage in terms of agriculture’s ecological service function.

The interplay between agricultural endowments and socioeconomic conditions shapes the functional profile of agriculture at the village level. In villages with abundant agricultural resources and developed economies, there is a growing emphasis on improving the agricultural ecological service function to meet villagers’ demands for a high-quality living environment. In villages with limited agricultural resources but developed economies, the leisure and cultural functions of agriculture hold significant potential for growth. Where agricultural endowments are plentiful yet the economy is underdeveloped, there is a risk that the ecological service function may decline as attention becomes focused on strengthening agriculture’s provisioning and economic development functions. Finally, in villages where both agricultural endowments and the economy are underdeveloped, the lack of nonagricultural job opportunities may constrain the development of the agricultural economy. Additionally, the foundational conditions necessary for developing agriculture’s leisure and cultural functions are often lacking.

Interdependent relationships among stakeholders of agricultural functions at the village level

An analytical framework for the mutual dependence relationships among stakeholders of agricultural functions is constructed (Fig. 3). In the expression of agricultural functions, key stakeholders primarily include suppliers of agricultural functions, intermediaries of agricultural functions, and beneficiaries of agricultural functions. Suppliers with agricultural functions refer mainly to households engaged in agricultural activities, obtaining agricultural outputs, and pursuing agricultural interests, including various types of farmers such as melon growers, vegetable farmers, fruit growers, grain farmers, part-time farmers, and breeders. The beneficiaries of agricultural functions are those who benefit from agricultural activities and outputs, including the suppliers of agricultural functions and external society. Intermediaries of agricultural functions are entities that serve both suppliers and beneficiaries of agricultural functions, facilitating the flow of agricultural functions from suppliers to beneficiaries. These include agricultural product buyers, sellers of agricultural materials, providers of basic life services to farmers, transporters of agricultural products, and other relevant agricultural entities. From the perspective of interdependent relationships among stakeholders, suppliers, intermediaries, and beneficiaries of agricultural functions interact to collectively accomplish the expression of agricultural functions.

Fig. 3
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Interdependence between subjects of functional interest in agriculture.

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Methodology

Study area

Gaizhou city in Liaoning Province boasts diverse landforms, varied agricultural business types, and distinctive agricultural functions. On the basis of factors such as geographic location, level of economic development, social structure and type of agriculture, the four representative villages of Zhangdazhai, Xinzhaizi, Qianyanzha and Zhanmaoyu, were selected from Gaizhou city for this study (Fig. 4). The four villages were selected for their geographical diversity (plains, hills, mountains) and representative agricultural types (cash crops, fruit cultivation, grain-livestock systems, agro-tourism) in Liaoning Province, covering different economic development stages, and the number four balanced data richness with logistical feasibility.

Zhangdazhai village is located on the southern outskirts of Gaizhou cityand has flat and open terrain; crop cultivation is based on greenhouse watermelon and vegetable rotation. Xinzhaizi village is located in southwestern of Gaizhou city, where the plains to the mountains transition to hilly areas and where specialty fruits are cultivated. Qianyanzha village is located in the southeast mountainous area of Gaizhou city, the landform is mainly a river bank alluvial plain and mountainous area, and the agricultural economy is based mainly on corn planting and cattle and sheep breeding. Zhanmaoyu village is located in the southeastern mountainous area of Gaizhou city, has mountainous terrain, and is high in the south and low in the north, and its agricultural economy is based on corn planting, goat farming and rural tourism.

Fig. 4
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Locations of the case villages (this figure is generated in ArcGIS 10.2 software, https://www.esri.com/en-us/home/).

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Data collection

Village scale agricultural operational data were primarily gathered through participatory rural appraisal methods and personal interviews. Researchers conducted four field trips to Gaizhou city between March and July 2021 to investigate the agricultural development status of the case villages. In this study, we conducted interviews with 15 households in Zhangdazhai village, 21 households in Xinzhaizi village, 14 households in Qianyanzha village, and 16 households in Zhanmaoyu village. The relatively small sample size in each village was justified by the qualitative nature of the study, which prioritizes in - depth understanding over large - scale statistical representation. Households were selected to reflect the primary agricultural activities and socioeconomic diversity within each village. Any new issues or uncertainties arising during the interviews were followed up with additional research via WeChat and telephone. The digital elevation model (DEM) and land use data were sourced from the Resource and Environmental Science Data Platform of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (http://www.resdc.cn/).

Research methods

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is a qualitative fieldwork approach that emphasizes the active participation of community members and the value of local knowledge, facilitating an in-depth understanding of the actual conditions, needs, and potential development opportunities within rural communities. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with farming and nonfarming households in four villages, and the interviews lasted approximately 20–30 min. The interview topics with farmers included family demographics, land management practices, crop planting structures and yields, income status, livestock farming operations, agricultural input conditions, and historical information corresponding to these aspects. For nonfarmers, the interviews focused on their household and industrial operations and connections between nonfarmers and farmers. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted with the village secretaries of the four villages regarding the historical development of agriculture at the village level, covering population, land, and industry development profiles; planting structures at different stages of agricultural development; and the allocation of labour, land, and agricultural chemicals. A wealth of firsthand data was collected through interviews and exchanges with village committee leaders, local influential figures, farmers, and personnel from the agricultural service industry. All experimental protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Heze University. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations as per the ethical standards of the institutional and licensing committee that approved our study. We confirmed that informed consent was obtained from all interviewees involved in the study.

Results and analysis

Characteristics of the stages of the evolution of agricultural functions at the village level

This study tracked the evolution of agricultural functions in four case villages since the 1980s, when China’s rural areas underwent reforms that divided land among households, greatly stimulating agricultural productivity and farmers’ enthusiasm. As a result, the living standards of farmers gradually improved, and agricultural development entered a new phase. The economic development stages and functional evolution characteristics of the case villages are shown in Table 1; Fig. 5.

Table 1 Stages of economic development in the case villages.
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Fig. 5
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Characteristics of the evolution of agricultural functions in the case villages.

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The early stage of economic development

During this phase, all the case villages were engaged primarily in subsistence agriculture with low levels of commercialization, and the economic function of agriculture was limited. Zhangdazhai village mainly grews rice and vegetables, relies on well water for irrigation, with a one-crop-per-year cycle, requires a large amount of agricultural labour, and has a strong ecological service function due to the relatively low use of fertilizers and pesticides. Xinzhaizi and Qianyanzha villages had diverse agricultural operations, with both fruits and grain crops coexisting. The fruits of Xinzhaizi village were somewhat commercialized, whereas those of Qianyanzha village were characterized by a higher degree of agricultural diversification. Both had significant social security functions because nonagricultural employment opportunities were limited, and agriculture was the main source of income and employment. Zhanmaoyu village primarily grows sorghum, corn, and soybeans, with strong ecological service functions yet no apparent leisure and cultural functions, which is related to its relatively isolated geographical location and lower level of socioeconomic development.

The stage of economic take-off

As the economy developed, the agricultural functions of the villages began to diverge. In Zhangdazhai village, rice was replaced by dry crops, and the scale of cash crop cultivation was expanded and commercialized, reflecting increased market demand for diverse agricultural products and advances in agricultural technology. The increase in nonfarm income decreased the share of agricultural income and weakened the social security function due to the increase in nonfarm employment opportunities, provided more sources of income. Xinzhaizi village has improved fruit production and commercialization by applying greenhouse fruit planting technology; however, the increase in nonfarm employment opportunities has led to a decline in agriculture’s social security functions. In Qianyanzha village, cash crops decreased, corn cultivation dominated, and the degree of agricultural commercialization increased. However, the social security function weakened, which may be related to the agricultural mechanization and production efficiency improvements. In Zhanmaoyu village, there has been a shift in the agricultural structure, with an increase in the commercialization of corn and fruits but a decline in the social security function and economic development function, which may be due to the decline in the comparative efficiency of agriculture and the exodus of the rural labour force.

The stage of the economy moving towards maturity

During this period, the agricultural functions of the villages evolved further. Zhangdazhai village has developed a high-value agricultural model of “watermelon + vegetables,” which reflects the adjustment of the agricultural structure and changes in market demand. The supply function of agricultural products and the economic development function have been enhanced, and the ecological service function has improved. This may be related to implementing sustainable agricultural development policies and the increased use of organic fertilizers. Xinzhaizi village has increased its specialization in fruit cultivation, with increased commercialization and specialization, but its ecological service function remains at a relatively low level, which may be related to the extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Qianyanzha village is focused primarily on corn cultivation and livestock breeding, with improved commercialization, enhanced economic development, and a strengthened ecological service function, which may be related to implementing agricultural ecological protection measures. Zhanmaoyu village has developed a rural tourism and agricultural business model, significantly enhancing its leisure and cultural functions, reflecting the diverse trends of rural development and the strengthened agricultural multifunctionality. However, the capacity for agricultural product supply has declined, which may be related to the shift of agricultural resources towards tourism and other nonagricultural industries.

In this process, with economic development, the agricultural functions of various villages have gradually shifted from initial self-sufficiency to more market-oriented and specialized production patterns. Moreover, as nonagricultural employment opportunities increase, the social security function of agriculture gradually diminished, whereas the commercialization of agricultural products and their economic function continuously strengthen. Furthermore, with the heightened awareness of ecological protection and advancements in agricultural technology, the ecological service functions of villages are also undergoing varying degrees of change. These changes not only reflect the evolution of agricultural functions but also reveal the complex relationship between agriculture and rural development, as well as the multiple roles that agriculture plays in socioeconomic development.

Analysis of the drivers of the evolution of agricultural function at the village level

Natural resource endowment factors

Topographical and geomorphological factors are fundamental elements that influence the evolution and manifestation of agricultural functions through their impact on various types of agricultural operations. Examining the effects of altitude on agricultural functions (Fig. 6), Zhangdazhai village ranges from a minimum elevation of 2 m to a maximum of 10 m, with a height difference of 8 m. It is situated on a plain characterized by flat terrain, which presents favourable conditions for agriculture. The agricultural sector is quite developed, particularly in terms of crop production, resulting in a robust agricultural product supply and economic development functions, whereas the ecological service function is relatively weak. Xinzhaizi village varies in altitude from a minimum of 51 m to a maximum of 256 m, with a height difference of 205 m, and is located in a hilly area where the terrain is undulating. This topography is suitable for cultivating fruits and other economic crops. As such, the village has a relatively strong agricultural product supply function, whereas its ecological service function remains weak. Qianyanzha village is located in a mountainous region, spanning from a minimum elevation of 99 m to a maximum of 650 m, with a significant height difference of 551 m. The plains at the foot of the mountains are traditionally used for crop farming. Here, the agricultural product supply function is weaker, but the ecological service function is strong. Zhanmaoyu village has the lowest elevation of 228 m and the highest elevation of 754 m, with a height difference of 526 m, classifying it as a mountainous village. Corn is grown on the plains at the foot of the hills and in the river valleys, whereas orchards are planted on the slopes. The agricultural product supply function is modest, yet the ecological service function and recreational and cultural functions are quite pronounced.

Fig. 6
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Elevation characteristics of the case villages (this figure is generated in ArcGIS 10.2 software, https://www.esri.com/en-us/home/).

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In terms of the influence of ground slope on agricultural functions (Fig. 7), the ground slope in Zhangdazhai village is between 0° and 1.64°, the ground is flat, and there are no slopes larger than 2°; the flat and open surface farming conditions are favourable for agricultural production and farming and are highly valuable for the agricultural product supply and economic development. The slope of the ground in Xinzhaizi village ranges from 0° to 21.25°, with flat land less than 2° accounting for 53.94% of the total land area, flat slopes of 2° to 6° accounting for 35.56%, gentle slopes of 6° to 15° accounting for 9.78%, and slopes greater than 15° accounting for 0.72% of the total land area. The areas with higher slopes are distributed in the hilly areas of the eastern and northern parts of the area, where agricultural operations combine speciality fruits, and agriculture’s economic development function is stronger. The ground slope in Qianyanzha village ranges from 0° to 36.89°, of which flat land with less than 2° accounts for 13.60% of the total land area, flat slopes of 2°-6° account for 14.17%, gentle slopes of 6°-15° account for 42.26%, slopes of 15°–25° account for 23.38%, and slopes of more than 25° account for 3.59% of the total land area. Regions with lower ground slopes are distributed mainly in the eastern valley areas, whereas those with higher slopes are widely distributed in the central and western parts. The significant undulation of the land surface is unfavourable for mechanized agricultural operations, leading to more traditional farming practices. Consequently, the economic development function of agriculture is relatively weak in these areas, whereas the ecological service function is strong. The slope of the ground in Zhanmaoyu village ranges from 0° to 32.67°, of which flat land less than 2° accounts for 3.02% of the total land area, flat slopes between 2° and 6° account for 16.52%, gentle slopes between 6° and 15° account for 57.29%, slopes between 15° and 25° account for 22.15%, and slopes greater than 25° account for 1.02% of the total land area. The areas with gentle ground slopes are distributed mainly on both sides of the rivers between the villages, and the areas with greater slopes are distributed in the mountains on the periphery of the rivers. The steeper ground slopes and closed traffic conditions are not advantageous for traditional agricultural cultivation. However, Zhanmaoyu village has an excellent ecological environment, fresh air and pleasant scenery, and its breeding industry, forest fruits picking and sightseeing and leisure agriculture have some conditions for development; thus, the village has less ability to supply agricultural products, whereas its ecological service, leisure and cultural functions are stronger.

Fig. 7
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Characterization of the ground slope in the case villages (this figure is generated in ArcGIS 10.2 software, https://www.esri.com/en-us/home/).

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Land use status reflects the forms and functions of land utilization, and the types and combinations of land use affect the strength of various agricultural functions. Examining the impact of land use status on agricultural functions (Fig. 8), the proportions of arable land to the total area of land in the villages of Zhangdazhai, Xinzhaizi, Qianyanzha, and Zhanmaoyu are 86.22%, 71.64%, 24.24%, and 16.49%, respectively. While the proportions of forestland are 0%, 14.40%, 71.49%, and 81.86%, respectively. Villages with land use types dominated by arable land have a solid foundation for agricultural production, laying good groundwork for fulfilling agricultural functions related to the supply of farm products and economic development. Land use types, such as forests and water bodies, also have certain value in conserving water sources, purifying air, and maintaining soil and water, which contributes to enhancing the ecological service functions of agriculture. Villages with relatively scarce arable land resources but abundant forestry resources tend to rely on a combination of farming and animal husbandry to sustain their livelihoods. Favourable ecological conditions also facilitate the ecological service and recreational and cultural functions of agriculture.

Fig. 8
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Land use characteristics of the case villages (this figure is generated in ArcGIS 10.2 software, https://www.esri.com/en-us/home/).

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Socioeconomic condition factors

The evolution of agricultural functions exhibits distinct phases influenced by the stage of socioeconomic development. Within specific phases, factors such as population, income, location (proximity to cities), nonagricultural job opportunities, leadership traits, and the history of agricultural operations are important in accounting for the intervillage differences in agricultural functions and driving the transformation of these functions (Table 2).

Table 2 Socioeconomic factors in the evolution of agricultural functions in the case villages.
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From the perspective of the population and economic conditions, a large population provides the labour support needed to develop labour-intensive cash crop agriculture. Xinzhaizi and Zhangdazhai villages possess the labour force required for developing high-value agriculture, and the high-value agriculture in these two villages has also brought more income to the farmers. With respect to location conditions, proximity to cities influences the demand for agricultural functions in urban areas, and good road infrastructure is a fundamental condition for the functioning of agriculture. Zhangdazhai village, which is closer to the city than Qianyanzha village, experiences greater demand for its agricultural functions from the urban area. Convenient road conditions facilitate the rapid transportation of perishable products, such as fruits, enhancing the agricultural supply function of farm products and the economic development function. Zhanmaoyu village is situated at the intersection of the Bakong (Bayuquan to Kongtun) and Zhuanglin (Zhuanghe city to Baarin Left Banner) lines, enjoying a geographical advantage by connecting Kangping city and Gaizhou city. This is conducive to developing the leisure and cultural functions of agriculture.

From the perspective of nonagricultural employment opportunities, nonagricultural employment is a substitute for agricultural employment, and generally, the more nonagricultural job opportunities are available, the weaker the social security function of agriculture. As agriculture’s comparative benefits decline, farmers increasingly shift towards nonagricultural industries, with the distance of migration varying according to the availability of nonagricultural jobs. In terms of the characteristics of village leaders, those who are capable individuals who can drive the specialized and large-scale development of rural agricultural industries, promote increased farmer income and wealth. The leaders in Qianyanzha village, with their tree seedling planting cooperative, and Zhanmaoyu village, with their livestock breeding professional cooperative, serve as models that promote agricultural functions. Examining the history of agricultural operations reveals that historical patterns of agricultural practices have laid the foundation for the current types of agricultural operations and the functioning of agriculture. Zhangdazhai village once attempted open-air cultivation of vegetables, such as potatoes and ginger, accumulating certain experience in operating specialty crops. Xinzhaizi village is located in the hilly region of the Liaodong Peninsula and has a history of fruit planting. It has developed the current combination of fruit species through continuous selection of fruit varieties.

In the four case villages, the interdependent relationships among stakeholders of agricultural functions are distinct, influenced by the village’s agricultural business model, resource endowments, and socioeconomic conditions. In Zhangdazhai village, greenhouse watermelon farmers collaborated with local cooperatives to streamline market access, directly enhancing the economic development function. In Xinzhaizi village, fruit-growing farmers partner with buyers and agricultural input sellers to supply fruits to markets, thereby supporting the village’s agricultural product supply and economic development functions. In Qianyanzha village, farmers engaged in corn planting and animal husbandry collaborate with buyers, input providers, and transporters to ensure the supply of agricultural and livestock products, thereby contributing to the village’s product supply and economic growth. In Zhanmaoyu Village, tourism operators (intermediaries) linked farmers to urban tourists, amplifying the leisure and cultural function.

Discussion and policy implications

Discussion

Multiscale driving mechanisms of agricultural function evolution

Under the joint influence of resource endowment conditions and socioeconomic development, a specific agricultural business model is formed in a certain region, different types of agricultural businesses have different agricultural practices, and different agricultural practices at the village scale reflect different agricultural functions. At different stages of economic development, the functions of agriculture present different characteristics48,51. In the early stage of economic development, when material life is relatively scarce, agriculture performs the functions of supplying raw materials, such as agricultural products and social security; when the economy matures and transitions to the developed stage, high-quality development becomes the focus of economic development, and the ecological value of agriculture and the value of leisure and culture are respected.

Natural factors, such as topography and land use, play a significant role in shaping agricultural functions at the village scale. The topographical and geomorphological characteristics of the case villages have influenced the types and intensity of agricultural operations. For instance, Zhangdazhai village, located on a plain with flat terrain, has a strong agricultural product supply and economic development function, but a relatively weak ecological service function. In contrast, Qianyanzha village, situated in a mountainous region with significant elevation differences, has a weaker agricultural product supply function but a strong ecological service function. The land use status also affects the strength of various agricultural functions. Villages with a high proportion of arable land, such as Zhangdazhai and Xinzhaizi, have a solid foundation for agricultural production, facilitating the supply of farm products and economic development. Villages with abundant forestland, such as Qianyanzha and Zhanmaoyu, benefit from ecological services and have the potential to develop leisure and cultural functions.

Socioeconomic factors, including population and economic characteristics, location, nonagricultural employment opportunities, leadership qualities, and agricultural business history, have a significant impact on the evolution of agricultural functions. Proximity to cities and good road infrastructure enhance the demand for agricultural functions and facilitate the transportation of perishable products, thereby strengthening the agricultural supply and economic development functions. For example, Zhangdazhai village, located closer to the city, experiences greater demand for its agricultural functions from urban areas. Nonagricultural employment opportunities reduce the social security function of agriculture as farmers shift towards nonagricultural industries. The quality of village leaders and their ability to drive agricultural development also play a crucial role. For instance, the leaders in Qianyanzha village have promoted agricultural functions through tree seedling planting cooperatives.

From the perspective of the evolution of agricultural functions, structural changes have shifted the role of agriculture from primarily providing food supplies and livelihood security to driving economic development to recreational and cultural functions. The factors influencing these changes reveal that in plains areas, abundant arable land supports the development of high-value agriculture, whereas in mountainous areas, the focus may be more on ecological services and recreational activities. Socioeconomic conditions, such as nonagricultural employment opportunities, bring additional economic benefits to rural areas, thereby reducing the agricultural sector’s role in social security. The evolution of agricultural functions is closely tied to resource endowment and socioeconomic conditions, confirming the applicability of the multifunctional theory of agriculture at the village scale.

The internal logic and external influencing factors of agricultural function evolution

From the internal logic of the evolution of agricultural functions, factors such as enhancing of agricultural productivity, adjusting agricultural structure, and agricultural technological innovation have driven agricultural functions from self-sufficiency towards marketization and specialization. The increase agricultural productivity has propelled agricultural products towards marketization and specialization, increasing the income of farmers and the rural economy, promoting the social division of labour and cooperation, and enhancing cohesion. Although this caused initial pressure on the ecosystem, it later became conducive to resource protection. The adjustment of the agricultural structure, which is based on market demands and resource development, has fostered the growth of agriculture to increase profits, reduce risks, create social employment, attract talent, promote diversification, and optimize the ecosystem. Agricultural technological innovation has supported economic development, increased income, facilitated social education and lifestyle changes, protected ecological diversity, and achieved resource recycling.

From the perspective of external factors influencing the evolution of agricultural functions, policies, market demands, globalization, and climate change all impact the transformation of agricultural functions. Policies such as subsidies and land regulations guide and regulate agriculture, thereby economically ensuring food security and improving efficiency, socially safeguarding farmers’ livelihoods and enhancing their quality of life, and ecologically promote the transition towards green transformation, thereby affecting the evolution of agricultural functions. Market demand, driven by consumers’ appetite for high-quality and diverse agricultural products, encourages the adjustment of agricultural structures to increase income, drive related industries, create employment, preserve culture, and shift production to focus on environmental protection, thus propelling the evolution of agricultural functions. Globalization expands the market for agricultural products, promotes investment, facilitates cultural exchanges, creates employment, and encourages adherence to international environmental standards, broadly influencing the evolution of agricultural economic, social, and ecological functions. By affecting crop yields and quality, threatening food security, and deteriorating the ecological environment, climate change compels adjustments in the economic, social, and ecological aspects of agriculture, thereby impacting the evolution of its functions. The trajectory of the evolution of agricultural functions in the case villages is shaped by the interplay of external and internal factors.

Contribution to the multifunctional theory of agriculture

This study significantly contributes to the theory of multifunctional agriculture by providing a detailed analysis of the evolution of agricultural functions at the village level in China. It enriches the theoretical framework by examining the diverse and complex roles of agricultural functions, including their economic, social, ecological, and cultural dimensions. The research highlights the interplay between natural resource endowments and socioeconomic conditions, demonstrating how these factors influence the manifestation and transformation of agricultural functions. By exploring the distinct stages of economic development and their impact on agricultural functions, the study offers a dynamic perspective on the multifunctionality of agriculture51. The empirical findings, based on participatory rural appraisal methods, provide robust evidence supporting the theory and offer practical insights for promoting sustainable agricultural development. Overall, the study advances the understanding of multifunctional agriculture and provides valuable implications for policy-making and future research.

Policy implications

For villages with rich agricultural endowments

Villages like Zhangdazhai, which are blessed with abundant agricultural resources, should focus on high - value crop production. Policymakers can encourage farmers to adopt advanced technologies and practices, such as greenhouse cultivation, to increase the productivity of high - value crops like vegetables and fruits. Subsidies for technology adoption and training programs for farmers would be beneficial. Additionally, improving market access by developing transportation and storage facilities is crucial to ensure that farmers can efficiently sell their products.

For villages with diverse agricultural practices

Villages such as Xinzhaizi, which have a variety of agricultural activities, should be encouraged to promote specialty crop cultivation. Policymakers can provide financial incentives for farmers to diversify their crops and reduce reliance on traditional staples. Furthermore, supporting cooperative models by encouraging the formation of agricultural cooperatives can enhance bargaining power in markets, enable resource sharing, and facilitate collective marketing strategies.

For villages with limited agricultural resources

Villages like Qianyanzha and Zhanmaoyu, which have limited agricultural resources, should focus on ecological and leisure agriculture. Policies can be developed to promote eco - friendly farming practices and rural tourism. Funding for such initiatives can help these villages leverage their natural beauty and cultural heritage. Additionally, capacity - building and skills - training programs for farmers can enhance their abilities in sustainable practices and diversification into non - agricultural activities, improving resilience and income stability.

A holistic approach to rural development that integrates agricultural policies with social, economic, and environmental considerations is essential for all villages. Policymakers should encourage cross - sectoral collaboration among various government departments to ensure comprehensive and context - specific interventions. This integrated approach can address the unique challenges and opportunities faced by different types of villages, promoting sustainable agricultural development and rural prosperity.

The evolution of agricultural functions at the village scale also faces a series of challenges52, such as the ageing of the agricultural labour force, the low willingness of young people to work in agriculture, the relative lack of agricultural income, the lack of attractiveness of rural life, and the overall low resilience of the livelihoods of farming households. The expansion of agricultural functions should be placed in the context of industrial integration and urban-rural integration, and promoting the in-depth integration of agriculture and other industries should be undertaken to expand agricultural functions.

Conclusions

This study systematically reviews the theoretical framework of the evolution of agricultural functions and, combined with case studies of four typical villages in Gaizhou city, Liaoning Province, China, uses the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method to explore the processes and driving factors of the evolution of agricultural functions at the village level in detail. The research results reveal the characteristics of agricultural functions at different stages of economic development and analyse the impact of natural and socioeconomic factors on the performance of agricultural functions. The main conclusions of this study are as follows:

  1. (1)

    The agricultural functions of the case villages experienced the economic stages of early development, take-off, and the move towards maturity. In these stages, there are significant differences in the performance and intensity of agricultural functions, reflecting the close relationship between agricultural functions and the level of economic development.

  2. (2)

    Natural factors, such as topography and land use, as well as socioeconomic factors, such as population and economic characteristics, geographical location, nonagricultural employment opportunities, leadership quality, and the history of agricultural management, have played a significant role in the performance of agricultural functions at the village level. The interplay of these factors has shaped the evolution of agricultural functions.

  3. (3)

    There are distinct regional differences in the agricultural functions of different villages, which are closely related to local resource endowments and socioeconomic conditions. In villages with abundant resources, the supply and economic development functions of agriculture are more prominent, whereas in villages with scarce resources, the ecological service and leisure cultural functions of agriculture hold greater potential.

  4. (4)

    The research findings are highly important for formulating targeted agricultural policies and promoting the sustainable development of global agriculture. By understanding the internal patterns and external influencing factors of the evolution of agricultural functions, a scientific basis can be developed for agricultural policies, promoting the sustainable development of agriculture and rural areas.

The evolution of agricultural functions affects the sustainable development of agriculture. In terms of economic sustainability, multifunctionality can increase value addition and create more economic opportunities. In terms of social sustainability, it can promote rural social development, provide employment, improve the lives of farmers, preserve culture, and enhance community cohesion. In terms of environmental sustainability, its ecological functions are significant for the protection of natural resources and the maintenance of ecological balance. Agricultural functions are leveraged to coordinate economic, social, and environmental goals: economically, developing industries, such as rural tourism and agricultural product processing, as well as niche markets to increase income, require support from social resources and are based on ecofriendly agriculture; socially, related industries provide employment, and cultural heritage activities strengthen cohesion, creating a stable environment for the economy and promoting ecological practices; and environmentally, promoting organic agriculture and waste recycling to protect resources supports the economy and is conducive to social harmony and stability.

Efforts can be made in production models, resource management, and agricultural waste handling to promote agricultural economic development while maintaining and enhancing its ecological service functions. In terms of production models, developing ecological agriculture, such as intercropping, three-dimensional agriculture and organic farming can increase income and protect the ecosystem. In terms of resource management, precision agriculture technologies can be used for accurate fertilization and irrigation, conserving and protecting water resources, and reducing waste and pollution. In terms of agricultural waste handling, recycling straw, livestock manure, and other waste can reduce environmental pollution while saving costs and enhancing soil fertility, among other ecological functions. Balancing the economic development and ecological service functions of agriculture helps ensure the long-term stability of agricultural production, enhance the market competitiveness of agricultural products, meet diverse social needs, and ultimately promote the sustainable development of agriculture.

This study focuses on four typical villages in Gaizhou city, Liaoning Province, China, which may not fully represent the diverse agricultural practices and conditions across the country. The sample size is relatively small, and the findings may not be generalizable to other regions or types of villages. Additionally, the study primarily relies on qualitative data collected through participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methods, which may limit the scope and depth of the analysis. Future research could address these limitations by expanding the sample size and including more diverse types of villages to enhance the representativeness of the findings. Future research could expand the sample size to include more diverse villages, conduct longitudinal studies to track changes over time, incorporate quantitative analysis methods, evaluate the effectiveness of agricultural policies, and adopt interdisciplinary approaches to gain a more comprehensive understanding of agricultural function evolution.