Fig. 7

The temperature difference between Tehran and its suburbs over a 19-year period (2003–2021) by using the dominant defined in Fig. 1c. and Table 3. Comparison of the SD of day and night temperatures (a-b) and the difference in nighttime UHI effect across different months (c), as well as winter (d), spring (e), summer (f), autumn (g), and annually (h) in Tehran’s metropolis, including its eastern, western, and southern suburbs as depicted in Fig. 1c. and come in Table 3. The data presented in this Figure were prepared using Earth data. Cite: AppEEARS Team. Application for Extracting and Exploring Analysis Ready Samples (AppEEARS). Version X.X. NASA EOSDIS Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), USGS/Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA. URL link: https://appeears.earthdatacloud.nasa.gov. Subsequently, the data were modified using Climate Data Operators (CDO). Version number: 2.0.4. URL link: https://code.mpimet.mpg.de (2022), and the Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS). Version number: 2.2.1.oga.1. URL link: http://cola.gmu.edu (2019). Both CDO and GrADS were utilized on Ubuntu Desktop Linux. Version number: 22.04 LTS. URL link: https://ubuntu.com (2022). The charts were generated using Microsoft Excel. Version number: 2021. from Microsoft Corporation. URL link: https://office.microsoft.com (2021), as well as Origin 2024 from OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA. Version number: Origin 2024 (10.1). URL link: https://www.originlab.com (2023). Finally, Fig. 7 was enhanced using Paint.NET. Version number: 5.0.13. URL link: https://www.getpaint.net (2024).