Abstract
The Coaxial-Like through-glass vias (TGVs) are frequently used vertical interconnect transmission structures in radio frequency (RF) three-dimensional(3D) integrated circuits (ICs). This paper addresses the TGV’s structure in high-density 3D packaging by proposing a multi-parameter co-optimization methodology that integrates electromagnetic modeling, response surface methodology (RSM), and genetic algorithm (GA), significantly enhancing its high-frequency transmission performance. Innovatively, a 3D full-wave electromagnetic simulation model of the coaxial-like TGV is established to systematically analyze the influence of via pitch p, via radius r, and number of ground vias n on the insertion loss S21. An analytical model for RLGC parasitic parameters based on electromagnetic theory is derived. A second-order response surface model correlating S21 with key structural parameters is constructed via Box-Behnken experimental design, and globally optimized using a genetic algorithm, resulting in an optimized parameter set (p = 82.05 μm, r = 10.44 μm, n = 10) for S21 at 100 GHz. Simulation results verify that the optimized S21 improves by 0.0052 dB compared to the baseline model, with a relative enhancement of 21.94%. This study not only provides a theoretical foundation and optimization framework for high-performance TGV design, but also offers an effective solution for low-loss interconnects in 3D integrated RF devices.
Data availability
The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.
References
Shen, W.-W. & Chen, K.-N. Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) key technology: Through-silicon via (TSV). Nanoscale Res. Lett. 12, 56 (2017).
Kiran, K. M., Kaushik, B. K. & Dhiman, R. Proposal and analysis of coaxial-through-glass vias in 3-D integration using multiresolution time-domain (MRTD) technique. IEEE Trans. Comp. Pack. Manuf. Technol. 14, 267–276 (2024).
Jung, C.-H., Jung, J. P., Sharma, A. & Kim, H.-S. Advanced through-glass via (TGV) electro-filling and solder bumping for miniaturized 3D MEMS packaging. J. Alloys Compd. 182619 (2025).
Engin, A. E. & Narasimhan, S. R. Modeling of crosstalk in through silicon vias. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 55, 149–158 (2012).
Salah, K. in 2016 3rd International conference on advances in computational tools for engineering applications (ACTEA). 49–53 (IEEE).
Zhao, W.-S. et al. Modeling and characterization of coaxial through-silicon via with electrically floating inner silicon. IEEE Trans. Comp. Packag. Manuf. Technol. 7, 936–943 (2017).
Qu, C., Ding, R., Liu, X. & Zhu, Z. Modeling and optimization of multiground TSVs for signals shield in 3-D ICs. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 59, 461–467 (2016).
Zhang, Y. et al. Uniting integration: Advancing RF interconnect technologies. IEEE Microwave Mag. 26, 30–46 (2025).
Dong, H. et al. Design of a novel compact bandpass filter based on low-cost through-silicon-via technology. Micromachines 14, 1251 (2023).
Zhao, Z. et al. Electrical characterization of through-silicon-via-based coaxial line for high-frequency 3d integration. Electronics 11, 3417 (2022).
Lee, S.-H., Kim, S.-J., Lee, J.-S. & Rhi, S.-H. Thermal issues related to hybrid bonding of 3D-stacked high bandwidth memory: A comprehensive review. Electronics 14, 2682 (2025).
Wang, Z., Ye, G., Li, X., Xue, S. & Gong, L. Thermal–mechanical performance analysis and structure optimization of the TSV in 3-D IC. IEEE Trans. Comp. Packag. Manuf. Technol. 11, 822–831 (2021).
Yu, C. et al. Application of through glass via (TGV) technology for sensors manufacturing and packaging. Sensors 24, 171 (2023).
Yousuf, A. H. B., Hossain, N. M. & Chowdhury, M. H. in 2015 IEEE international symposium on circuits and systems (ISCAS). 1957–1960 (IEEE).
Sukumaran, V., Bandyopadhyay, T., Sundaram, V. & Tummala, R. Low-cost thin glass interposers as a superior alternative to silicon and organic interposers for packaging of 3-D ICs. IEEE Trans. Comp. Packag. Manuf. Technol. 2, 1426–1433 (2012).
Kim, Y. et al. Glass interposer electromagnetic bandgap structure for efficient suppression of power/ground noise coupling. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. 59, 940–951 (2016).
Tong, J. et al. Electrical modeling and analysis of tapered through-package via in glass interposers. IEEE Trans. Comp. Packag. Manuf. Technol. 6, 775–783 (2016).
Shorey, A., Kuramochi, S. & Yun, C. in International Symposium on Microelectronics. 000386–000389 (International Microelectronics Assembly and Packaging Society).
Chien, C.-H. et al. in 2013 IEEE international 3D systems integration conference (3DIC). 1–7 (IEEE).
Shorey, A. B. & Lu, R. in 2016 Pan Pacific Microelectronics Symposium (Pan Pacific). 1–6 (IEEE).
Lueck, M., Huffman, A. & Shorey, A. in 2015 IEEE 65th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (ECTC). 672–677 (IEEE).
Liu, Y. et al. Electromagnetic modeling and analysis of the tapered differential through glass vias. Microelectron. J. 83, 27–31 (2019).
Hu, H. B., Wang, D., Fan, Y. & Cheng, Y. J. in 2023 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Workshop Series on Advanced Materials and Processes for RF and THz Applications (IMWS-AMP). 01–03 (IEEE).
Liu, J. et al. Modeling and Analysis of Parasitic Inductance in TGVs Within High-Density Glass Interposers for High-Speed Interconnects. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn. (2025).
Lai, Y., Pan, K. & Park, S. Thermo-mechanical reliability of glass substrate and Through Glass Vias (TGV): A comprehensive review. Microelectron. Reliab. 161, 115477 (2024).
Zhang, G., Chen, H., Yang, Y., Ma, S. & Jin, Y. 2022 International Conference on Electronics Packaging (ICEP). (IEEE) pp. 115–116.
LeClair, T. & Martin, S. in 54th International Symposium on Microelectronics. 000149–000153 (International Symposium on Microelectronics).
Boora, V., Kumar, A., Kommukuri, M., Chandel, R. & Dhiman, R. Electrical characterization and performance analysis of coaxial through-glass vias. Sādhanā 49, 44 (2024).
Kiran, K. M. & Dhimanc, R. Sampling-Biorthogonal Time-Domain Technique for Temperature-Dependent Transient Analysis of Coaxial–TGVs in 3D Integration. IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Design Integr. Circuits Syst. (2025).
Box G E P, Draper N R. Response surfaces. Mixt. Ridge Anal. 649 (2007).
Myers, R. H., Montgomery, D. C. & Anderson-Cook, C. M. Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments (Wiley, 2016).
Acknowledgements
This work was Supported by Guizhou Provincial Basic Research Program (Natural Science) of Youth Guidance (No.〔2025〕241), the Guangxi Science and Technology Base and Talent Special Project: Research and Application of Key Technologies for Precise Navigation (Gui Ke AD25069103), the Foundation Research Project of Kaili University (grant No.YTH-XM2025003), , the Qiandongnan Science and Technology Cooperation Platform([2024] 0001), the Engineering Research Centre of Micro-nano and Intelligent Manufacturing, Ministry of Education (No.[2024] WZG04), the Science and Technology Breakthrough Project of Hundred Schools and Thousand Enterprises of the Education Department of Guizhou Province (Grant no. QJJ2025011), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant nos. 62162012 and 62462013).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization, Shouwei Chen and Xingpeng Liu; Methodology, Shouwei Chen and Jin Wang; Software, Shouwei Chen and Xiaoping Wu; Validation, Shouwei Chen, Jin Wang And Dawen Xia; Formal Analysis, Shouwei Chen; Investigation, Jin Wang; Resources, Shouwei Chen and Jie Liu; Data Curation, Xingpeng Liu and Shouwei Chen; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Shouwei Chen.; Writing—Review & Editing, Shouwei Chen, Jin Wang, Xingpeng Liu, Jie Liu, Xiaoping Wu and Dawen Xia; Visualization, Shouwei Chen, Jin Wang, Xingpeng Liu and Dawen Xia; Supervision, Dawen Xia; Project Administration, Shouwei Chen and Dawen Xia; Funding Acquisition, Shouwei Chen and Dawen Xia. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, S., Wang, J., Liu, X. et al. High-frequency characteristics analysis and optimization of coaxial-like TGVs. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35007-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35007-5
