Abstract
Enhancing the rate and efficiency of crop residue utilization is critical for sustainable agriculture and cleaner production. However, differentiated utilization patterns, influencing factors, and economic efficiency among smallholder farmers remain largely unknown. This study explored the barriers, motivations, influencing factors, as well as economic inputs and outputs of crop residue utilization among 382 respondents (267 in plains and 115 in hilly areas) in China’s main grain-producing regions. The results indicate that fertilizer (49.76% of respondents) and livestock feed (19.18%) were the most prevalent ways of crop residue utilization, followed by crop residue selling (9.29%), crop residue used for domestic fuel (2.94%), and raw materials (1.41%). The collectable crop residue yield (7759.24 kg), utilization rate (87.17%), total economic input (79.70 USD/ha), and output (164.84 USD/ha) among farmers in plain areas were higher than those in hilly areas (3812.04 kg, 71.07%, 66.79 USD/ha, and 144.55 USD/ha, respectively). The return on investment (ROI) was significantly higher in plains (113.92%) than in hilly areas (98.54%). Environmental protection and crop residue recycling were identified as the main motivations for the high rate of crop residue utilization, while additional inputs for crop residue utilization and labor shortages were significant barriers in plain and hilly areas, while farmers in plain areas are most constrained by the additional funds and labor input they need, while those in mountainous areas face more severe challenges related to a lack of knowledge, equipment and market access. The use of crop residue for livestock feed, fertilizer, and sales was positively influenced by agricultural income, planting area, and available crop residue yield. Factors affecting crop residue utilization for raw materials and domestic fuel varied across terrains. In plain areas, crop residue used for raw materials was affected by gender, while in hilly areas, crop residue used for domestic fuel was affected by age, market availability, and awareness of crop residue resources. These findings suggest that differentiated strategies are required: implementing targeted Farmer Field Schools (FFS) to improve technical skills and residue management; providing financial incentives to offset machinery and sales costs; promoting land consolidation and mechanized, large-scale residue collection; and developing regional residue markets with centralized collection networks and on-site processing facilities, particularly in hilly areas.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
References
FAO. Agricultural production statistics 2000–2021. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2022). https://www.fao.org/3/cc3751en/cc3751en.pdf (Accessed: 2 December 2023).
Bakker, R. R. C. et al. Rice Straw and Wheat Straw Potential Feedstocks for the Biobased Economy. (NL Agency, 2013). https://edepot.wur.nl/288866
Smil, V. Crop residues: Agriculture’s largest harvest. Bioscience 49, 299–308 (1999).
Vachon, K. & Oelbermann, M. Crop residue input and decomposition in a temperate maize-soybean intercrop system. Soil Sci. 176, 157–163 (2011).
Bijay, S., Shan, Y. H., Johnson-Beebout, S. E., Yadvinder, S. & Buresh, R. J. Crop residue management for lowland rice-based cropping systems in Asia. Adv. Agron. 98, 117–199 (2008).
Scarlat, N., Martinov, M. & Dallemand, J.-F. Assessment of the availability of agricultural crop residues in the European Union: Potential and limitations for bioenergy use. Waste Manage. 30, 1889–1897 (2010).
Gao, Z. Quantity and utilization of crop straw resources in China. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. Vol. 546 012103 (IOP Publishing, 2020).
Cai, J. M., Liu, R. H., Deng, C. J. & Shen, F. Amount, availability and potential uses for energy of agricultural residues in Mainland China. J. Energy Inst. 80, 243–246 (2007).
Guan, Y., Chen, G., Cheng, Z. & Yan, B. Air pollutant emissions from straw open burning: A case study in Tianjin. Atmos. Environ. 171, 155–164 (2017).
Chanana, I. et al. Combustion and stubble burning: A major concern for the environment and human health. Fire 6, 79 (2023).
Chendrashekhara, S., Lokesh, G., Patila, S. S. & Lokeshaa, H. Factors influencing the adoption of paddy straw management practices by farmers of Karnataka (India). Curr. Agric. Res. J. 6, 225 (2018).
Gadde, B., Bonnet, S., Menke, C. & Garivait, S. Air pollutant emissions from rice straw open field burning in India, Thailand and the Philippines. Environ. Pollut. 157, 1554–1558 (2009).
Liu, Z., Sun, J., Zhu, W. & Qu, Y. Exploring impacts of perceived value and government regulation on farmers’ willingness to adopt wheat straw incorporation in China. Land 10, 1051 (2021).
Abdurrahman, M. I., Chaki, S. & Saini, G. Stubble burning: Effects on health & environment, regulations and management practices. Environ. Adv. 2, 100011 (2020).
Guo, X. et al. Toward the economic-environmental sustainability of smallholder farming systems through judicious management strategies and optimized planting structures. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 165, 112619 (2022).
Li, J. et al. Ammoniated straw returning: A win-win strategy for increasing crop production and soil carbon sequestration. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 363, 108879 (2024).
Wang, H. et al. Policies and regulations of crop straw utilization of foreign countries and its experience and inspiration for China. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 32, 216–222 (2016).
Uwamahoro, H., Kpomblekou-A, K., Mortley, D. & Quarcoo, F. Organic vegetable crop residue decomposition in soils. Heliyon 9, e13982 (2023).
Matsumura, Y., Minowa, T. & Yamamoto, H. Amount, availability, and potential use of rice straw (agricultural residue) biomass as an energy resource in Japan. Biomass Bioenergy 29, 347–354 (2005).
Kim, S. & Dale, B. E. Global potential bioethanol production from wasted crops and crop residues. Biomass Bioenergy 26, 361–375 (2004).
Bogale, S., Melaku, S. & Yami, A. Potential use of crop residues as livestock feed resources under smallholder farmers conditions in Bale highlands of Ethiopia. Trop. Subtrop. Agroecosystems 8, 107–114 (2008).
Illo, A., Kamba, A. A., Umar, S. & Abubakar, A. Analysis of crop residues availability for animal feed in Kebbi State, Nigeria. Int. J. Agric. Ext. 6, 89–97 (2018).
Bentsen, N. S., Nilsson, D. & Larsen, S. Agricultural residues for energy—A case study on the influence of resource availability, economy and policy on the use of straw for energy in Denmark and Sweden. Biomass Bioenergy 108, 278–288 (2018).
Ali, M., Saleem, M., Khan, Z. & Watson, I. A. The use of crop residues for biofuel production. In Biomass, Biopolymer-Based Materials, and Bioenergy 369–395 (Elsevier, 2019).
Sfez, S., De Meester, S. & Dewulf, J. Co-digestion of rice straw and cow dung to supply cooking fuel and fertilizers in rural India: Impact on human health, resource flows and climate change. Sci. Total Environ. 609, 1600–1615 (2017).
Seglah, P. A. et al. Crop straw utilization and field burning in Northern region of Ghana. J. Clean. Prod. 261, 121191 (2020).
Huang, L. et al. Assessment of the effects of straw burning bans in China: Emissions, air quality, and health impacts. Sci. Total Environ. 789, 147935 (2021).
Hu, Z. A research on the affecting factors of farmers’ comprehensive utilization of straw in China. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. vol. 186 022134 (IOP Publishing, 2018).
Xue, C. & Wang, X. Study on government subsidy decision-making of straw power generation supply chain. Procedia Eng. 174, 211–218 (2017).
Raza, M. H. et al. Understanding farmers’ intentions to adopt sustainable crop residue management practices: A structural equation modeling approach. J. Clean. Prod. 227, 613–623 (2019).
Monforti, F. et al. Optimal energy use of agricultural crop residues preserving soil organic carbon stocks in Europe. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 44, 519–529 (2015).
Giannoccaro, G., de Gennaro, B. C., De Meo, E. & Prosperi, M. Assessing farmers’ willingness to supply biomass as energy feedstock: Cereal straw in Apulia (Italy). Energy Econ. 61, 179–185 (2017).
Singh, G. & Arya, S. K. A review on management of rice straw by use of cleaner technologies: Abundant opportunities and expectations for Indian farming. J. Clean. Prod. 291, 125278 (2021).
Connor, M. et al. When climate change is not psychologically distant–Factors influencing the acceptance of sustainable farming practices in the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam. World Dev. Perspect. 18, 100204 (2020).
Huang, X. et al. Sustainability of returning wheat straw to field in Hebei, Shandong and Jiangsu provinces: A contingent valuation method. J. Clean. Prod. 213, 1290–1298 (2019).
Ai, B., Sheng, Z., Zheng, L. & Shang, W. Collectable amounts of straw resources and their distribution in China. In International Conference on Advances in Energy, Environment and Chemical Engineering 441–444 (Atlantis Press, 2015).
Yang, C. et al. Temporal and spatial distribution, utilization status, and carbon emission reduction potential of straw resources in China. Huanjing Kexue 44, 1149–1162 (2023).
Zeng, Y., Zhang, J. & He, K. Effects of conformity tendencies on households’ willingness to adopt energy utilization of crop straw: Evidence from biogas in rural China. Renew. Energy 138, 573–584 (2019).
Lu, H. et al. Impacts of farmland size and benefit expectations on the utilization of straw resources: Evidence from crop straw incorporation in China. Soil Use Manage. 38, 929–939 (2022).
Wang, Y.-J., Wang, N. & Huang, G. Q. How do rural households accept straw returning in Northeast China?. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 182, 106287 (2022).
Cuong, T. T. et al. Renewable energy from biomass surplus resource: Potential of power generation from rice straw in Vietnam. Sci. Rep. 11, 792 (2021).
Parihar, D. S. et al. Rice residue burning in northern India: An assessment of environmental concerns and potential solutions—A review. Environ. Res. Commun. 5, 062001 (2023).
Bajracharya, S. B., Mishra, A. & Maharjan, A. Determinants of crop residue burning practice in the Terai region of Nepal. PLoS ONE 16, e0253939 (2021).
Liu, L., Wang, D., Gao, L. & Duan, R. Distributed heating/centralized monitoring mode of biomass briquette fuel in Chinese northern rural areas. Renew. Energy 147, 1221–1230 (2020).
Li, Y. et al. Will farmers follow their peers in adopting straw returning? Evidence from rural Sichuan Province, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 21169–21185 (2023).
Li, H., Dai, M., Dai, S. & Dong, X. Current status and environment impact of direct straw return in China’s cropland—A review. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 159, 293–300 (2018).
Ren, J., Yu, P. & Xu, X. Straw Utilization in China—Status and Recommendations. Sustainability 11, 1762 (2019).
Sun, D., Ge, Y. & Zhou, Y. Punishing and rewarding: How do policy measures affect crop straw use by farmers? An empirical analysis of Jiangsu Province of China. Energy Policy 134, 110882 (2019).
MARA. The comprehensive utilization rate of crop straw in China reached 88.1% in 2021. (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2022). http://www.moa.gov.cn/xw/zwdt/202210/t20221010_6412962.htm (Accessed: 2 December 2023).
Chaudhary, S. et al. A synopsis of farmland abandonment and its driving factors in Nepal. Land 9, 84 (2020).
Korav, S. et al. Impacts of mechanized crop residue management on rice-wheat cropping system—A review. Sustainability 14, 15641 (2022).
Patel, M., Raj, A., Devi, M. A., Singh, S. D. & Patel, V. K. Crop residues management: A sustainable approach for rice and wheat production in Indo-Gangetic plains. Int. J. Res. Agron. 7, 24–32 (2024).
Song, D. L. et al. China’s straw nutrient resources and potential for substituting chemical fertilizers. J. Plant Nutr. Fertil. 24, 1–21 (2018).
Ma, Q. Y. Cost-benefit analysis of main utilization methods of corn straw in Northeast China. Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (2017).
Mei, F. C. Cost-benefit analysis of straw burning pollution: A case study of Xinyang City Henan Province. Environ. Sci. Manag. 01, 30–32+37 (2008).
Wang, S. J. & Cai, R. Economic analysis of farmers’ straw resource disposal behavior. China Popul. Resour. Environ. 24, 162–167 (2014).
Ma, J. Reasons for straw burning by farmers in China: Cost-benefit comparison and constraint analysis. J. Agrotech. Econ. 02, 77–84 (2009).
Jain, S. & Sharma, T. Social and travel lockdown impact considering coronavirus disease (COVID-19) on air quality in megacities of India: Present benefits, future challenges and way forward. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 20, 1222–1236 (2020).
Jiang, Y. et al. Utilization of crop residue for power generation: The case of Ukraine. Sustainability 11, 7004 (2019).
Ye, J. et al. Left-behind women: Gender exclusion and inequality in rural-urban migration in China. J. Peasant Stud. 43, 910–941 (2016).
Islam, M. S. et al. How does farmers’ field schooling impact eco-efficiency? Empirical evidence from paddy farmers in Bangladesh. China Agric. Econ. Rev. 12, 527–552 (2020).
Todo, Y. & Takahashi, R. Impact of farmer field schools on agricultural income and skills: Evidence from an aid-funded project in rural Ethiopia. J. Int. Dev. 25, 362–381 (2013).
Zhou, Y., Zhou, Q., Gan, S. & Wang, L. Factors affecting farmers’ willingness to pay for adopting vegetable residue compost in North China. Acta Ecol. Sin. 38, 401–411 (2018).
Tomlinson, J. & Rhiney, K. Assessing the role of farmer field schools in promoting pro-adaptive behaviour towards climate change among Jamaican farmers. J. Environ. Stud. Sci. 8, 86–98 (2018).
Seglah, P. A., Wang, Y., Wang, H. & Bi, Y. Estimation and efficient utilization of straw resources in Ghana. Sustainability 11, 4172 (2019).
Qin, J. & Lin, Z. Government subsidies for straw recycling. In 2016 International Conference on Logistics, Informatics and Service Sciences (LISS) 1–5 (IEEE, 2016).
Yu, L. et al. Policy analysis of biomass recycling supply chain considering carbon and pollution emission reduction—taking China’s straw subsidy policy for example. Systems 11, 343 (2023).
He, J. et al. Effect of land transfer on farmers’ willingness to pay for straw return in Southwest China. J. Clean. Prod. 369, 133397 (2022).
Fan, L., Ge, Y. & Niu, H. Effects of agricultural extension system on promoting conservation agriculture in Shaanxi Plain. China. J. Clean. Prod. 380, 134896 (2022).
Singh, J. Identifying an economic power production system based on agricultural straw on regional basis in India. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60, 1140–1155 (2016).
Delivand, M. K., Barz, M. & Gheewala, S. H. Logistics cost analysis of rice straw for biomass power generation in Thailand. Energy 36, 1435–1441 (2011).
Aryal, J. P., Rahut, D. B., Thapa, G. & Simtowe, F. Mechanisation of small-scale farms in South Asia: Empirical evidence derived from farm households survey. Technol. Soc. 65, 101591 (2021).
Yang, X. et al. Urban residents’ willingness to pay for corn straw burning ban in Henan, China: Application of payment card. J. Clean. Prod. 193, 471–478 (2018).
Wang, X., Yamauchi, F. & Huang, J. Rising wages, mechanization, and the substitution between capital and labor: Evidence from small scale farm system in China. Agric. Econ. 47, 309–317 (2016).
Shi, M., Paudel, K. P. & Chen, F.-B. Mechanization and efficiency in rice production in China. J. Integr. Agric. 20, 1996–2008 (2021).
Wu, X., Zhang, J. & Feng, J. Farmers’ willingness to participate in the market circulation of crop straws and its influence factors. J. Arid Land Resour. Environ. 31, 79–84 (2017).
Munthali, G. N. C. & Xuelian, W. Straw Marketization in China-Trend and Status. Glob. J. Finance Manag. 12, 19–43 (2020).
Sarkar, S. et al. Management of crop residues for improving input use efficiency and agricultural sustainability. Sustainability 12, 9808 (2020).
Da, C. T. et al. Recycled pangasius pond sediments as organic fertilizer for vegetables cultivation: Strategies for sustainable food production. Clean Techn. Environ. Policy 25, 369–380 (2023).
Chandel, R., Raj, R., Kaur, A., Singh, K. & Kataria, S. K. Energy and yield optimization of field and vegetable crops in heavy crop residue for Indian conditions-climate smart techniques for food security. Energy 287, 129555 (2024).
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their sincere gratitude to the editors and anonymous reviewers of Scientific Reports for their invaluable comments and constructive suggestions, which have profoundly improved the quality of this manuscript. We are also deeply thankful to the four college students who participated in the field survey. Their dedication and meticulous work during the data collection process were essential to the success of this research. This study was supported by the 2023 Annual Project of Philosophy and Social Science Planning of Henan Province (Grant ID: 2023BSH010) and the Project of Surveying and Mapping Science and Technology 'Double First-class’ Discipline Cultivation of Henan Polytechnic University (Grant ID: GCCRC202304).
Funding
Funder name: Project of Surveying and Mapping Science and Technology ‘Double First-class’ Discipline Cultivation of Henan Polytechnic University (Grant ID: GCCRC202304).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization, Y.G. and L.F.; methodology, Y.G. and L.F.; software, Y.G. and L.F.; validation, Y.G. and L.F.; formal analysis, Y. G.; investigation, Y.G.; resources, Y.G. and L.F.; data curation, Y. G.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.G. and L.F.; writing—review and editing, Y.G. and L.F.; visualization, Y.G. ; supervision,L.F.; project administration,L.F.; funding acquisition, L.F..All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Ge, Y., Fan, L. Resourceful utilization of crop residue by smallholder farmers in major grain-producing areas: pathways and countermeasures. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35164-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-35164-7
