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Probabilistic dietary exposure assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and its associated disease burden in Singapore
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  • Published: 12 February 2026

Probabilistic dietary exposure assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and its associated disease burden in Singapore

  • Angela Li1,2 na1,
  • Min Ern Chen1 na1,
  • Geraldine Songlen Lim1,
  • Benjamin Er1,
  • Mei Hui Liu2,
  • Valerie Sin1,
  • Wei Jie Seow3,4,
  • Gene Yong-Kwang Ong5,
  • R Ponampalam6,
  • Boon Kiat Kenneth Tan6,
  • Joanna Khoo1,
  • Joanne Sheot Harn Chan1,2 &
  • …
  • Kyaw Thu Aung1,2,7 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Diseases
  • Environmental sciences
  • Health care
  • Risk factors

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are process contaminants with dietary exposure as a key route into the human body. Findings from the Singapore Total Diet Study revealed that higher levels of PAHs were found in food categories such as nuts and seeds, sauces and condiments, fruiting vegetables as well as fungi and seaweed. The choice of cooking method may influence the PAH levels in food such as fish and seafood products where stir-frying was associated with higher PAHs levels than boiling and steaming. Monte Carlo simulation was applied in the PAHs probabilistic exposure assessment using optimistic and pessimistic model scenarios. Lifetime cancer risk due to total dietary exposure to PAHs was estimated to be between 4.63 × 10− 5 and 5.17 × 10− 3. Attributable Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) for the Singapore population were estimated to be between 2.36 × 10− 1 and 92.5 years under the optimistic and pessimistic model scenarios respectively. These values reflect a relatively low burden of disease attributable to dietary PAHs exposure for consumers in Singapore and elsewhere. Further research and monitoring, along with policy considerations, will be crucial for reducing dietary exposure to PAHs and safeguarding consumer health.

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Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Funding

This research was funded by the Singapore Food Agency.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Angela Li and Min Ern Chen are equal contributors to this work and designated as co-first authors.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Centre for Food Science, Singapore Food Agency, 7 International Business Park, Singapore, 609919, Singapore

    Angela Li, Min Ern Chen, Geraldine Songlen Lim, Benjamin Er, Valerie Sin, Joanna Khoo, Joanne Sheot Harn Chan & Kyaw Thu Aung

  2. Faculty of Science Department of Food Science & Technology, National University of Singapore, 2 Science Drive, Singapore, 117543, Singapore

    Angela Li, Mei Hui Liu, Joanne Sheot Harn Chan & Kyaw Thu Aung

  3. Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, 12 Science Drive 2, Singapore, 117549, Singapore

    Wei Jie Seow

  4. Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, 10 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597, Singapore

    Wei Jie Seow

  5. Department of Emergency Medicine, KK Women’s and Children’s Hospital, SingHealth-Duke NUS Paediatrics Academic Clinical Programme, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore, 169857, Singapore

    Gene Yong-Kwang Ong

  6. Department of Emergency Medicine, Singapore General Hospital, Outram Road, Singapore, 169608, Singapore

    R Ponampalam & Boon Kiat Kenneth Tan

  7. School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore

    Kyaw Thu Aung

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Contributions

**Angela Li** : Conceptualisation, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft. **Min Ern Chen** : Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – Original Draft. **Geraldine Songlen Lim** : Investigation. **Benjamin Er** : Methodology, Writing - Review & Editing. **Mei Hui Liu** : Writing - Review & Editing. **Valerie Sin** : Writing - Review & Editing. **Wei Jie Seow** : Writing - Review & Editing. **Gene Yong-Kwang Ong** : Writing - Review & Editing. **R. Ponampalam** : Writing - Review & Editing. **Boon Kiat Kenneth Tan** : Writing - Review & Editing. **Joanna Khoo** : Supervision. **Joanne Sheot Harn Chan** : Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision. **Kyaw Thu Aung** : Conceptualisation, Supervision, Project administration.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kyaw Thu Aung.

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Li, A., Chen, M.E., Lim, G.S. et al. Probabilistic dietary exposure assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and its associated disease burden in Singapore. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39906-5

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  • Received: 07 October 2025

  • Accepted: 09 February 2026

  • Published: 12 February 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39906-5

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Keywords

  • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
  • Food safety, food contaminants, probabilistic dietary exposure
  • Cancer risk
  • Disease burden
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