Introduction

The transportation industry is one of the China’s largest gasoline consumption industry1, and its emissions have emerged as a significant contributor to air pollution2. Existing studies have confirmed that NEVs have significant influence on improving air quality and reducing carbon dioxide emissions3,4. Moreover, it was reported that the NEV industry has transformed into a crucial tool for countries to attain sustainable development goals5. As a result, governments in various countries have implemented measures to boost the development of the NEV industry including financial subsidies, tax breaks, and the establishment of charging infrastructure6. Although China is the world’s largest market for new energy vehicles7, the adoption of NEVs as an alternative to fuel vehicles in China is slow. By the end of September 2023, China had 430 million motor vehicles and 18.21 million NEVs, accounting for 5.5% of the total. Compared to fossil fuel-powered vehicles, there are still some barriers that discourage individuals from purchasing NEVs8.

Existing research is mainly focused on exploring factors to promote consumer adoption of NEVs9,10,11,12, which offers valuable enlightenment for promoting the popularization of NEVs. However, from a practical standpoint, whether it is the government’s monetary stimulus or technological innovation, the promotion role of consumers’ choice of NEVs is limited. Despite efforts by some scholars to examine the obstacles that deter consumers from choosing NEVs, such as economy, technology, infrastructure, environment, etc.13,14, these factors are different in countries and cannot fully demonstrate the obstacles faced by Chinese consumers when buying NEVs. Furthermore, consumers’ psychological factors are more important and complex than policies and situations, but research on consumer psychology is scarce in the existing literature15.

Furthermore, Tarei et al.16 argued that it was important to construct a survey on overcoming barriers to NEVs adoption in a specific country context. The adoption of NEVs will differ depending on the specific country and cultural context. Similarly, Plananska et al.17 suggested that cross-cultural research on NEV adoption is necessary because cultural value will influence residents’ decisions to purchase NEVs. Empirical studies have shown that Chinese traditional cultural values have a profound impact on consumers’ pro-environmental behaviour18,19. For example, face consciousness inspires consumers’ environmentally responsible behaviour during travel20. Consistent with this sentiment, it was also reported that group conformity reduces young Chinese consumers’ food waste behaviors21.

In addition to the aforementioned, Chinese Confucianism and the doctrine of the mean have profoundly influenced Chinese consumers’ shopping preferences. Therefore, Chinese people like to plan ahead and are suspicious of uncertain outcomes. The driving uncertainty is an important factor hindering the popularity of NEVs22. When consumers are confronted with emerging technologies like NEVs, they often face a range of unknowns and uncertainties. These uncertainties may relate to NEVs’ performance, reliability, maintenance costs, battery life, and the availability of charging facilities. Extant studies have confirmed that consumers are uncertain about the performance and environmental properties of NEVs16,23. However, the existing research has largely overlooked the role of uncertainty avoidance in shaping consumers’ adoption of NEVs.

Lastly, NEVs have environmentally friendly attributes1. In studies on the consumption of ethical products with environmentally friendly attributes, price is a significant variable often discussed by scholars24,25. The elevated price of NEVs, primarily stemming from the costly batteries, surpasses that of traditional fuel-powered vehicles14. The price difference makes consumers worry about the economic cost of purchasing NEVs. Consumers need to weigh the environmental and energy-saving advantages brought by the purchase of NEVs against the high price. In order to enhance the attractiveness of NEVs, governments have adopted incentive policies, such as reducing the purchase price of fuel vehicles, tax incentives, etc., but the effect of these policies ultimately depends on the choice of consumers26. Numerous research results have revealed that the price factor is the primary reason consumers refrain from selecting NEVs14,24,26. However, to date, the influence of price factors on the popularity of NEVs remains incompletely understood.

To address the above gaps, this study aims to extend NEV adoption research by constructing a framework that includes the factors that promote and hinder consumers’ choice of NEVs. This study contributes to the extant literature in the following three dimensions: First, this study investigates how uncertainty avoidance of Chinese traditional cultural values affects consumers’  purchase intention of NEVs, thereby expanding the scope of the impact of cultural values on consumers’ decision-making. Second, this study innovatively explored the influence mechanism of price consciousness and perceived risk on the adoption of NEVs, providing a new theoretical perspective for subsequent research. Third, this study explores the moderating effect of environmental awareness on consumers’ adoption of NEVs. By integrating consumer behavior with pro-environmental behavior, it enriches the theoretical dimensions of the research on the adoption of NEVs.

Literature review

Technology acceptance model (TAM)

TAM is a theoretical model that explains and predicts user adoption behavior of new technologies. TAM is grounded in two pivotal factors of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, and it explains technology adoption behaviour through attitude27. TAM has garnered widespread application in various fields, including service robots in the tourism industry28, Internet of Things29, Online and offline delivery30, and virtual try-on technology31. These studies and empirical analyses demonstrate the validity and practical relevance of the TAM model in elucidating and forecasting technology adoption behaviour.

However, some of the scholars have also criticized the applicability of TAM. First, the original TAM primarily focuses on the favourable factors that influence consumers’ acceptance of technologies and products, ignoring the factors that hinder consumers’ acceptance32. Therefore, scholars often incorporate perceived risk into TAM to enhance its explanatory power33,34. Second, TAM ignores the influence of cultural and social factors when explaining technology adoption, social values and inter-group differences may have a vital impact on technology acceptance35. Third, TAM mainly focuses on individuals’ cognition and attitude towards technology, while ignoring the influence of external environmental factors on technology acceptance. Some studies have broadened TAM by incorporating external factors or social influence to better explain technology adoption behaviour30,36.

New energy vehicles adopt innovative technologies such as intelligent interaction and electric drive systems, it is appropriate to employ TAM to predict the adoption of NEVs37. This study fully considers the scholars’ criticism of TAM and expands the TAM model. First of all, this study adds perceived risk and price consciousness to TAM, which makes up for the defect that TAM only considers the promoting factors of technology acceptance. In addition, this study expands the scope of TAM’s cross-cultural research by adding the cultural value of uncertainty avoidance. Finally, this study tests the moderating role of consumers’ environmental awareness in shaping their intention to adopt NEVs.

Research on adoption of NEVs in China

New energy vehicles refers to “those vehicles with new-type power systems, wholly or mainly driven by new energy sources, largely including all-electric vehicles (EVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs)”38. The adoption of NEVs is an important condition for realizing low-carbon and sustainable development in society39. As a result, many of the scholars have focused on understanding this issue and improving consumer adoption of NEVs. Given the significant heterogeneity in economic development across different cities and the divergence in consumers’ automotive preferences, scholars have directed their attention to investigating the city-level variability in NEV adoption behavior40,41. Furthermore, leveraging the inherent environmental attributes of NEVs, another strand of research has centered on the role of consumers’ environmental cognition. In this vein, scholars have explored how various cognitive constructs, such as environmental concerns42, ecological awareness39, subjective norms43, and environmental responsibility44, exert an influence on consumers’ purchase intentions toward NEVs.

However, from the viewpoint of the market penetration or prevalence of NEVs across various nations, consumers’ cognition and acceptance of NEVs still have great room for improvement. Although many scholars have studied the barriers in their respective countries in promoting NEVs22,45,46, there are relatively few studies on the barriers faced by China in promoting NEVs. In the context of ever-changing technology and the environment, scholars’ research on barriers to the adoption of NEVs is limited and needs to be further deepened47,48.

The existing literature disclosed that the barriers to the adoption of NEVs in the Chinese market can be summarized in various ways. A growing body of scholars have identified the inadequacy of supporting infrastructure as a critical barrier to the popularization of NEVs49,50. The immaturity of NEV technologies has also garnered widespread scholarly attention51,52. Recent empirical studies have indicated that an increasing number of consumers are attaching great importance to the resale value of NEVs22. Specifically, the depressed pricing in the second-hand NEV market has exerted a negative impact on consumers’ purchase intentions. Moreover, some scholars have identified the scarcity of charging facilities as a significant hindrance to the wider promotion of NEVs15,49. Especially when long-distance driving is required, the lack of charging equipment reduces user convenience, thus reducing consumer demand for NEVs. Another barrier to the popularity of NEVs is consumers’ range anxiety53,54.

A systematic review of extant literature examining the factors influencing consumers’ adoption of NEVs yields two key findings: First, scholars mainly analyze barriers faced by NEVs adoption from the NEVs’ attributes, technology and charging infrastructure, few studies have delved into the factors from the lens of consumer psychology. Second, research on how Chinese cultural values influence consumers’ adoption of NEVs remains scarce. Among the existing studies, only Chen et al.55 explored the promotion effect of frugality and “mianzi” on Beijing consumers’ intention to adopt NEVs, but the purchase quota policy in Beijing led to the limited extension of the research conclusions.

Hypothesis development and conceptual framework

Perceived risk (PR)

Perceived risk refers to “consumer evaluations of the likelihood and severity of future negative consequences as a result of a consumption experience, or the chance of loss multiplied by the magnitude of the loss”56. Existing studies show that safety is the most important aspect for consumers when purchasing NEVs57. Since the technology of NEVs is relatively new, consumers may have concerns about their reliability and safety58. For example, the battery’s life and the charging system’s safety are some of the common concerns raised by the adoption of NEVs. In particular, there are news reports that NEVs explode after a collision, causing a fire, which greatly enhances the perceived risk of consumers45,59. The rapid expansion of NEVs leads to disorderly charging behavior, which in turn makes consumers perceive the risk of normal operation of the power grid57.

In addition, the perceived risk will make consumers doubt the travel efficiency of driving NEVs39, because the scarcity of charging infrastructure constitutes a significant factor in shaping consumers’ perceived risk36,60. If consumers think that the charging station is not dense enough or that the charging speed is too slow, they may worry about the charging difficulties of long-distance travel, thus lowering their attitude towards new energy vehicles. Therefore, perceived risk reduces consumers’ confidence in NEVs and affects their purchasing decisions. A survey conducted by García de Blanes Sebastián et al.36 showed that consumers have a negative attitude towards electric vehicles when they perceive physical risks. Furthermore, according to the research of Zhang et al.37, perceived risk inversely affects consumers’ attitudes towards NEVs.

Multiple studies have demonstrated that there is a negative correlation between perceived risk and consumers’ intention to adopt NEVs61,62. Jia and Lin22 found that consumers’ perceived risk of accidents on NEVs reduced their purchase intention. In a similar vein, Xu et al.63 investigated 692 consumers’ intentions to adopt EVs, and found that the perceived risk was negatively correlated with consumers’ intentions. When investigating consumers’ intention to adopt NEVs in China, Xiong et al.62 also reached a similar conclusion that perceived risk reduced consumers’ purchase intention for NEVs. Wang et al.39 studied the factors shaping the decision of consumers’ adoption of NEVs in Gansu, China, and found that the perceived risk made consumers feel that the ease of use of NEVs was reduced, thus reducing their purchase intention. Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:

H1a: Perceived risk negatively influences attitude.

H1b: Perceived risk negatively influences consumers’ intention to purchase NEVs.

Attitude (AT)

Singh et al.64 believed that accurately forecasting consumers’ intentions is not feasible without considering their attitudes towards NEVs. Consumers’ positive attitude towards environmental protection may be an important driving force for purchasing NEVs65. In addition, new energy vehicles usually cover many innovative technologies, such as electric drive systems and intelligent interconnection functions. If consumers hold a positive attitude towards new technologies and want to experience innovation, they may be more inclined to purchase NEVs. Existing empirical studies have shown that attitude is an important antecedent variable of purchase intention66,19,67. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H2: Attitude positively influences consumers’ NEV purchase intention.

Price consciousness (PC)

Price consciousness refers to the mentality of consumers to avoid goods that they think are more expensive68. Price is the biggest disadvantage that prevents consumers from purchasing NEVs34,57,69. The battery pack is the heart of NEVs, and high cost of battery technology research, development, and production directly leads to a rise in NEV prices52,70,71. In addition, the popularity of NEVs necessitates the corresponding charging infrastructure to provide. The construction, maintenance and operation of charging piles all require certain costs72. These costs are likely to be reflected in the NEV’s selling price. At the same time, Tarei et al.16 found that the limited availability of raw materials for NEVS would also lead to a high initial cost. Therefore, consumers need to make a trade-off between paying the high initial cost of NEVs and enjoying long-term fuel efficiency73.

In addition, the study conducted by Shen et al.74 revealed that Chinese consumers exhibit a high sensitivity towards pricing, and this sensitivity to the purchase and later maintenance costs of NEVs will lead to their perceived risks. When investigating the public’s intention to adopt NEVs in developing areas, Wang et al.39 discovered that perceived cost of the public enhanced the perceived risk of consumers. According to Sun75 , consumers will suffer greater risk losses as prices rise. Consumers ' perceived risk will be reduced when there is a discount on a product. Therefore, discounts motivate price-sensitive consumers to buy new products76.

In addition, the empirical findings of Wang et al.39 revealed that price consciousness reduces consumers’ acceptance of NEVs. According to Wang et al.77, the survey findings indicated that consumers’ purchase intention is not primarily influenced by the initial price of NEVs, but the cost of driving NEVs is inversely related to the purchase intention. They believed that the high price of NEVs is a key barrier to their popularity. Irfan et al.78 contended in their study that the price of renewable energy is negatively correlated with consumers’ purchase intention when investigating the factors affecting consumers’ adoption of renewable energy in Pakistan. By employing Maslow’s hierarchy of demand model, Cui et al.42 predicted consumers’ purchase intention for NEVs and found that price consciousness has a negative impact on consumers’ purchase intention. Consistent with the evidences above, Wang et al.39 found that the increase in the price of NEVs corresponds to a decrease in consumer acceptance. Therefore, the following hypotheses are postulated:

H3a: Price consciousness positively influences perceived risk.

H3b: Price consciousness negatively influences consumers’ intention to purchase NEVs.

Uncertainty avoidance (UA)

Hofstede79 summarized five potential cultural dimensions between countries, among which the second dimension is uncertainty avoidance. He argued that “uncertainty avoidance can be explained as the belief individuals display to reduce any sense of anxiety and avoid ambiguity”. Chinese Confucianism advocates following traditions, conservatism and norms. This ideological tendency makes people inclined to avoid risks and uncertainties and maintain stability and security. In addition, the Doctrine of the Mean is an important concept in ancient Chinese philosophy that emphasizes balance and the mean. The idea of the Doctrine of the Mean believes that excessive risk-taking is undesirable and advocates a moderate and balanced attitude. Influenced by Confucianism and the Doctrine of the Mean, Chinese consumers are more inclined to choose stable and reliable products when adopting new products. Consumers tend to prioritize the practicality and quality of products, exhibiting less receptiveness to new products that introduce uncertainty into their lives. A risk-averse culture has a vital influence on consumer adoption of new products80.

To corroborate the discussion above, Jia and Lin22 argued that due to the new technology of NEVs, consumers are uncertain about their performance. Berkeley et al.81 discovered that the high purchase price of electric vehicles and the uncertainty of maintenance and repair infrastructure caused consumers’ anxiety. In addition, in the current second-hand automobile market, the resale residual value of NEVs is low, and people’s acceptance of second-hand NEVs is uncertain16. At the same time, Tarei et al.16 also found that “electric vehicle technology is relatively unfamiliar, and most consumers are uncertain about its safety and operational reliability”. Some consumers find that the use of NEVs lacks obvious environmental benefits, leading to consumers’ uncertainty about the impact of their pro-environment behaviors82. This view is supported by many scholars, who hold the view that the pollution resulting from the production of batteries and power generation makes consumers uncertain regarding the environmental attributes of NEVs23. Therefore, consumers are uncertain about the performance, safety and environmental attributes of NEVs and perceive higher related risks31. In their study on consumers’ purchase intentions for e-commerce products, Rosillo-Díaz et al.83 discovered that individuals with a high tendency to avoid uncertainty tend to perceive greater risks associated with e-commerce platforms.

Prospect theory holds that “individuals make decisions based on value functions under uncertain conditions, and people are more sensitive to losses than gains”84. This theory shows that consumers will tend to consider future losses and gains when they perceive that there are uncertainties when buying a product. When the losses are greater than the gains, consumers may avoid buying this product. Consumers’ perception of potential uncertainty plays a pivotal role in the adoption of innovative products. This view is supported by empirical evidence. A survey of consumers’ purchase intentions for NEVs in 32 provinces in China shows that consumers’ lack of knowledge about NEVs leads to their uncertainty about charging and range, which reduces their preference for NEVs73. Therefore, the following hypotheses are postulated:

H4a: Uncertainty avoidance positively influences perceived risk.

H4b: Uncertainty avoidance negatively influences attitude.

Perceived usefulness (PU)

Perceived usefulness refers to “the perception of the benefits an individual will be getting while adopting a new technology”85. The perceived usefulness of NEVs is defined as consumers’ awareness of the functions, features, and advantages provided by NEVs. Under the publicity of the government and the media, many consumers believe that NEVs have contributed to environmental improvement because they reduce exhaust emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. Consumers’ perceived usefulness of NEVs in reducing air pollution and climate change86, which makes consumers hold a more positive attitude towards NEVs. Previous studies show that perceived usefulness is an important predictor of attitude37,66. This is because when consumers experience the benefits and advantages of using NEVs, this will enhance their purchasing attitudes, which is significant in leading to the adoption of the innovation66. In addition, policies such as subsidies, tax cuts and free parking reduce the cost of using NEVs, which reduces the total expenditure of NEVs during the life cycle, and in the long run, new energy vehicles are economically useful to individuals and society. PU has been described as predicting consumers’ purchase intentions85,87. Therefore, this study hypothesizes as follows:

H5a: Perceived usefulness positively influences attitude.

H5b: Perceived usefulness positively influences consumers’ intention to purchase NEVs.

Perceived ease of use (PEOU)

Perceived ease of use refers to “the degree to which an individual feels that they would not need an additional effort to learn how to use the NEVs”59. Some consumers believe that NEVs can provide a smooth and comfortable driving experience with high ease of use5. In addition, consumers can feel pleasure or enjoyment from NEV technologies, which affects consumers’ attitudes and acceptance of new technologies88. Extant studies have revealed that perceived ease of use significantly affects consumers’ attitudes towards NEVs37,66,87. In addition, the perceived ease of use is intricately linked to the user’s experience. Users feel convenient when using the new technology, which will improve users’ satisfaction and thus increase their purchase intention. This conclusion indicates that only when consumers perceive that NEVs are easy to drive and beneficial to health will their purchase intention be enhanced84. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H6a: Perceived ease of use positively influences attitude.

H6b: Perceived ease of use positively influences consumers’ intention to purchase NEVs.

Environmental awareness (EA)

Environmental awareness is an individual’s internal perception of issues and the consequences of their own actions on the environment89. Individuals with strong environmental awareness tend to pay more attention to the natural environment crisis, human life’s overall environmental quality, and future generations’ living conditions. As a result, consumers who possess a high level of environmental awareness tend to choose products that meet environmentally friendly standards because they focus on sustainability, environmental protection, and social responsibility69. Consistent with this view, awareness of the environment will reduce consumers’ perceived risk of NEVs, which will make them more focused on the environmental-friendly attributes of the innovation that could enhance their purchase intention. Moreover, according to Costa et al.90, consumers’ attitudes towards environmental issues have shifted as they have become more conscious of the detrimental consequences associated with their consumption habits and choices78. On the contrary, if consumers’ environmental awareness is weak, it may have reverse consequences for them to adopt sustainable consumption.

In addition, increased environmental awareness may lead to a shift in consumers’ values62. Although the initial price of NEVs may be higher, when consumers realize the benefits of air quality improvement and energy savings through long-term use of NEVs, they are inclined to perceive the usefulness of NEVs and regard them as an environmentally friendly and sustainable choice. Therefore, consumers prefer to purchase NEVs neglecting the initial purchase price. Furthermore, increased environmental awareness is usually accompanied by greater access to environmental knowledge and information. By understanding the characteristics, technology and experience of NEVs, consumers can more accurately evaluate and perceive NEVs’ ease of use and thus increase their purchase intentions (Fig. 1).

H7a: The relationship between PC and NEV purchase intention is moderated by environmental awareness.

H7b: The relationship between PR and NEV purchase intention is moderated by environmental awareness.

H7c: The relationship between AT and NEV purchase intention is moderated by environmental awareness.

H7d: The relationship between PU and NEV purchase intention is moderated by environmental awareness.

H7e: The relationship between PEOU and NEV purchase intention is moderated by environmental awareness.

Fig.1
Fig.1
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Research model.

Methodology

Research instruments

The measurement items utilized in this study, as presented in Appendix 1, are adapted from previous research that used well-established scales and were anchored by 1 (“strongly disagree”) and 7 (“strongly agree”). Five items from Rosillo-Díaz et al.83 were employed to measure UA. Furthermore, PR was measured by four items adopted from Jain et al.91, while EA was measured by a four-item proposed by Wang et al.67. Finally, three items for AT, PEOU, PI, PC and PU were adopted from Jaiswal et al.87, Vafaei-Zadeh et al.5, Chen et al.55, Cui et al.42, Wang et al.39), respectively.

Sample and respondent profile

The adoption of NEVs in China is uneven1. Some cities are affected by the purchase restriction policy, and the demand for NEVs is higher than in other cities. In order to accurately target respondents and avoid the influence of policy interventions from the provincial authorities, this study used online self-administered questionnaires as a tool to collect research data, filtering out consumers in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Hangzhou and Hainan ageing below 18. Non-probability sampling methods are advantageous when sampling frames are not available6. Questionnaires are distributed via the Wenjuanxing platform, the largest online questionnaire platform in China, with more than 50 million users and a huge potential respondent database.

This study strictly adheres to the declaration of Helsinki and relevant scientific research ethics guidelines. As a questionnaire-based social science study, it involves no clinical trials on human subjects, sensitive personal data, medical information, or data related to minors. The privacy and data security of all participants are fully protected. The research is conducted anonymously, follows the principle of voluntary participation, poses no potential risks to participants, and implements strict confidentiality measures for all collected information. It complies with the current regulations in China governing social science research.

Two English professionals translated the questionnaire into Chinese by a forward–backward translation method, and then two NEV salespeople and ten actual respondents checked the content, layout and order of the questionnaire to confirm its reliability and validity. The questionnaire is comprised of three distinct sections, with the initial one outlining the questionnaire’s intended purpose, providing a definition of NEVs, estimating the approximate time required for completion, assuring confidentiality of responses, and posing filter questions. The second part lists the antecedents affecting consumers’ adoption of NEVs. The third part concerns the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Based on G*Power (version 3.1.9.7) with a 0.95 power level, 0.05 alpha value, and 0.15 effect size, the 406 valid samples (Table 1) exceed the minimum sample size of 153 required to obtain reliable analytical results.

Table 1 Demographic profiles.
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Data analysis

This study uses a hybrid SEM-fsQCA method to test the proposed model. To assess the statistical significance of hypothesis paths, PLS-SEM was employed, and subsequently, the synergistic influence of antecedent factors on the intention to purchase NEVs was captured through the utilization of fsQCA92. As a supplementary analysis to PLS-SEM, fsQCA elucidates how various combinations of conditions work together to produce specific outcomes, providing an aid for the formulation of stronger management policies93. The SEM-fsQCA mixed method has been applied in many fields, such as export enterprise competition94, luxury product purchase intention95, and informed decision-making96.

Common method bias (CMB)

CMB is widely present in the questionnaire survey data, and it affects the reliability of the outcomes. Podsakoff et al.97 suggested two methods to solve the problem of CMB, namely, procedure control and statistical control. Procedural control occurred during the data collection phase, and in the first part of the questionnaire, respondents were told that they were anonymous and that there was no correct or incorrect response. Furthermore, suggestive language is avoided in the questionnaire content setting. As for statistical control, this study adopted the popular CMB assessment suggested by Liang et al.98. As displayed in Table 2, Rs2 has a much higher ratio than Rm2 (146), indicating CMB does not exist in this study.

Table 2 CMV.
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Assessment of the measurement model

Drawing upon the recommendations outlined by Hair Jr et al.99, this study first checked all measurement items’ outer loadings (Table 3); Each of the items possessed outer loadings that surpassed 0.708, significantly exceeding the threshold. Additionally, when evaluating internal consistency reliability through the utilization of composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s α100, all metrics indicated a satisfactory level, exceeding 0.7. Following that, convergence validity measures whether the measurement items centrally reflect the constructs,all constructs’ average variance extracted (AVE) was greater than 0.5101. Finally, utilizing Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT) criteria, the discriminant validity was rigorously examined. As evident in Table 4, the HTMT values for all constructs remain significantly below the conservative threshold of 0.85102, thereby indicating discriminant validity among the constructs. Collectively, the aforementioned results demonstrate that this study possesses strong internal consistency, as well as robust convergent and discriminant validity.

Table 3 Construct validity.
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Table 4 Discriminant Validity.
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Assessment of the structural model

Each measurement item’ variance inflation factor (VIF)  is below the threshold value, indicating the issue of collinearity is not relevant in this study103. As exhibited in Table 5 and Fig. 2, PR had no significant effect on PI and AT, suggesting that H1a and H1b are not supported. Furthermore, PU had no relationship with PI, so H6b was rejected. However, the remaining paths were all supported, with AT (H2) having a significant effect on PI. PC (H3a) and UA (H4a) both indicated a positive connection with PR. UA (H4b), PEOU (H5a), and PU (H6a) all have a significant effect on AT. Moreover, the influence of PC (H3b) and PEOU (H5b) on PI is significant. Finally, this study also examined Stone-Geisser’s Q2 value, which serves as an indicator of the model’s predictive relevance and measures its external validity102. The Q2 values for AT (0.068), PR (0.174), and PI (0.181) were above zero, indicating this model predictive relevance.

Table 5 Assessment of the structural model.
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Fig. 2
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Results of hypothesis testing.

The moderating effect of environmental awareness

As exhibited in Table 6, PLS-SEM results demonstrated that EA does not moderate the relationship between AT, PR, PC, PU and PI, thus H7a-H7d are rejected. However, EA moderates the connection between PEOU and PI, suggesting that H7e is supported.

Table 6 Moderating effect.
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Fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA)

Through causal analysis, PLS-SEM verifies the overall impact and importance of independent variables on dependent variables, yet it lacks the capability to ascertain which variables are sufficient or necessary for a specific result. FsQCA is a powerful method based on fuzzy-set and configuration to check how different combinations of factors affect the results104. Moreover, fsQCA has advantages in dealing with complex causal relationships, especially causal asymmetry. FsQCA combines qualitative and quantitative assessments by “focusing on the complex and asymmetric relations between the outcome of interest and its antecedents”105. The model developed in this study contains both mediator variables (PR and AT) and moderator variable (EA). Therefore, it is necessary to determine which variables can be analyzed by Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA). According to the study of Sharma et al.106, mediator variables and moderator variable have different ways of influencing the relationship between independent variables and dependent variables. NCA analysis can include mediator variable, but it is not appropriate to include moderator variable.

FsQCA analysis encompasses three stages: data calibration, necessity and sufficient conditions, and the construction of a truth table105,107. The first step in fsQCA is data calibration, where the raw data is transformed into a fuzzy set that represents whether a given scenario belongs to the set or not. We extracted latent variable scores from the running results of the PLS algorithm108 and imported them into fsQCA software for direct calibration. The next step is to analyze the necessity of a single condition, and the consistency and coverage level of each anthem of the result variable can be obtained. There is a commonly held belief that It is generally believed that when the consistency level of the antecedent condition is higher than the threshold value of 0.9, the condition is considered necessary for the emergence of the outcome. As can be seen from Table 7, all variables possess a consistency value beneath 0.9, suggesting that none of the preceding variables serve as an indispensable prerequisite for the resulting outcome109.

Table 7 Analysis of necessary conditions.
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The final step in fsQCA is to obtain a variety of combined solutions for the predictive outcome. According to the suggestion of Ragin107, if there are large-scale samples (> 150), a higher frequency cut-off point should be established based on previous experience110, we set the frequency cut-off point to 4 and the consistency level to 0.85. Subsequently, the truth table and configuration solutions were built. Configuration solutions include parsimonious, complex, and intermediate ones. The main difference is the treatment of logic residual terms111. Ragin107 believed that both the parsimonious solution and the intermediate solution encompass the fundamental condition analysis, while only the intermediate solution provides the peripheral condition analysis. The intermediate solution can prevent the necessary conditions from being simplified and is extensively employed in qualitative analysis109. Therefore, based on the results of the intermediate solution, this study obtains four configuration solutions for predicting the adoption of NEVs. Table 8 reveals that the overall consistency of the solution stands at 0.8895, indicating that the configuration solutions provide a high prediction of the outcome.

Table 8 Configurations that lead to high NEV purchase intention.
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The four configurations that can enhance NEV adoption intentions can be categorized into two types, one of which is oriented toward low price consciousness and low perceived risk type (S1 and S3). When consumers exhibit a low level of price sensitivity, their purchase decisions are less constrained by the relatively high premiums associated with battery technologies in NEVs. Instead, these consumers tend to place greater emphasis on the environmental attributes and driving experience of NEVs. A low perception of risk, on the other hand, reduces consumers’ subjective assessment of potential risks pertaining to NEVs, such as technological uncertainties, battery lifespan and product safety, thereby mitigating their risk aversion stemming from information asymmetry and the innovative nature of this product category. The other category is characterized by low uncertainty avoidance, low perceived risk and a positive attitude (S2 and S4). Consumers with low uncertainty avoidance demonstrate a higher level of acceptance of the uncertainties associated with new technologies, and thus do not exhibit avoidance tendencies due to the technological and usage uncertainties of NEVs. A favorable attitude reduces the trade-off deliberation in the decision-making process and perceived risk, which ultimately drives purchase intention.

Discussion

This study uses PLS-SEM-fsQCA to explain how perceived risk, attitude, price consciousness, uncertainty avoidance, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use affect consumers’ NEVs purchase intention. Moreover, this study also delved into the moderating impact of environmental awareness. The PLS-SEM results reveal that price consciousness exerts a negative influence on the NEVs purchase intention, whereas perceived ease of use and attitude towards NEVs foster a positive correlation with purchase intention. Furthermore, uncertainty avoidance indirectly influences NEVs purchase intention through its direct relationship with attitude. fsQCA results enrich the multiple configurations of variables that lead to high NEVs purchase intention, which complements the single-variable impact analysis of PLS-SEM.

Similar to previous studies, attitude exhibits a positive and highly significant correlation with the intention to purchase NEVs, which has been proven by PLS-SEM and fsQCA. This indicates that a positive attitude is the main driving force for consumers to purchase NEVs5. Some consumers reject technological innovation or hold a skeptical attitude towards the safety of NEVs,they are reluctant to focus on NEVs. PLS-SEM result shows that perceived risk has no meaningful relationship with NEVs purchase intention and attitude, but consistent with the studies of Vafaei-Zadeh et al.61 and Choo et al.112. Interestingly, fsQCA reveal that perceived risk is not neglective for high purchase intention. This indicates that perceived risk is not a universal factor in predicting intentions, but rather a contingent factor. Its influence on purchase intentions depends on low uncertainty avoidance and attitude. In addition, consumers’ perceived risk is frequently linked to their knowledge of the product and trust32. China’s NEVs have made significant achievements in technological innovation, greatly enhancing consumers’ trust and quality perception of NEVs. Recent years, the government has augmented its investment in the construction of NEV charging facilities and carried out publicity activities for NEVs through various channels, filling the gap in consumer knowledge of NEVs. These activities have weakened consumers’ risk perception.

Furthermore, the findings of PLS-SEM and fsQCA both suggest that price consciousness negatively influences NEVs purchase intention, which aligns with the findings reported by Cui et al.42. Price is the biggest obstacle for consumers to choose NEVs, making it difficult for consumers to afford. In addition, price consciousness was found to be positively correlated with perceived risk. This is due to the fact that price consciousness increases consumers’ financial risk113, and consumers are concerned about the returns on their investments. The results also show that uncertainty avoidance positively influences perceived risk and is negatively related to attitude. Confucianism makes people tend to avoid uncertainty and avoid the risk of loss caused by uncertainty114.

The PLS-SEM result is consistent with the findings of fsQCA, demonstrating that attitude and intention to purchase NEVs are positively impacted by perceived ease of use . In other words, consumers are more inclined to trust NEVs, develop a positive attitude, and exhibit purchase intention when they perceive the usage process of NEVs as simple and convenient. However, it was discovered that there was no direct but indirect correlation between perceived usefulness and intention to purchase NEVs. which is consistent with the research of Nuralam et al.115. One factor that consumers take into account when purchasing NEVs is their environmental attributes86. However, many scholars doubt the environmental attributes of NEVs52 and believe that the production and use of NEVs require huge resources. In addition, the primary function of a car is to meet the need for travel. At this level, the usefulness of fuel vehicles and NEVs does not differ significantly. Therefore, the perceived usefulness of NEVs is limited.

Implications

Theoretical implications

This study broadens the application of TAM theory in relation to NEVs purchase intention by integrating PLS-SEM and fsQCA. Contrary to the traditional theoretical conclusion, the PLS-SEM results indicate that neither perceived usefulness nor perceived risk exerts a statistically significant influence on consumers’ intention to purchase NEVs. However, fsQCA revealed perceived risk is necessary determining high purchase intention. The fsQCA results complement the PLS-SEM findings by overcoming its limitation of examining variables in isolation. The result of this study resonate with the call for adopting multiple analytical methods advocated by Sheng et al.116.

This study innovatively explores the indirect impact of uncertainty avoidance of Chinese traditional cultural values on NEVs purchase intention. By incorporating uncertainty avoidance, the research framework can more comprehensively consider the effect of cultural factors on users’ technology acceptance behavior, so that the research conclusions have stronger cross-cultural applicability. In addition, the moderating influence of environmental awareness in the purchase of NEVs has also been deeply studied, which helps to more accurately grasp consumers’ psychological mechanisms and decision-making processes when making purchase decisions and enriches the application of consumer behavior theory.

Practical implications

Our findings reveal that price consciousness detrimentally affects consumers’ intention to purchase NEVs and correlates positively with their perceived risk. This underscores that price is a significant consideration for consumers when deciding on NEVs purchasing42. Consequently, the government can aid in reducing the cost of NEVs by offering subsidies or tax exemptions. Meanwhile, NEV manufacturers must carefully devise pricing strategies, focusing on utilizing technological advancements to lower costs and make their products more affordable. Given the significant correlation between perceived ease of use and purchase intention, we recommend that NEV manufacturers enhance consumers’ opportunities to gain hands-on experience with NEVs. Manufacturers have refined the driving operation of NEVs, and consumers’ purchase intention will be influenced if they find the operating system easy to navigate.

In addition, consumers frequently adopt a cautious attitude towards innovative products, refraining from purchasing them until uncertain conditions are resolved117. To address this, manufacturers should employ engaging strategies to dispel consumer doubts. This could involve offering comprehensive product information to enhance consumer understanding or introducing measures like extended warranty periods and warranty services to alleviate consumer concerns when considering the purchase of NEVs. Environmental awareness can, to some extent, moderate the intention to purchase NEVs. Public policy makers can promote the environmental contributions of NEVs through education and social media advertising, enhancing consumer environmental awareness and preference for NEVs.

Limitations and future directions

Although this study offers several noteworthy contributions, it nonetheless entails certain limitations that can offer valuable guidance for future studies. First, the influence of culture on consumer attitudes and behaviors is interesting. This study investigates the cultural value elements that affect Chinese consumers to adopt NEVs. Due to the differences in cultural values between the East and the West, the results of this study are not universally applicable. Moreover, as for the different development conditions of NEVs in different countries, there may be some technological and environmental factors in other countries that were not considered in this study. Subsequent studies may investigate how cultural variations affect consumers’ intentions to purchase NEVs through a cross-country survey.

Second, new energy vehicles have environmental attributes, and consumers will weigh the price of NEVs against their own environmental values. This study examined the influence of price consciousness on purchase intention of NEVs, but it did not fully demonstrate the psychological balance between environmental consciousness and price consciousness among consumers. In future research, further analysis will be conducted on the influence of consumers’ environmental awareness and values on the adoption of NEVs.