Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Advertisement

Scientific Reports
  • View all journals
  • Search
  • My Account Login
  • Content Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed
  1. nature
  2. scientific reports
  3. articles
  4. article
Integrated techno-enviroeconomic and life-cycle assessment of a solar–green hydrogen hybrid system with industrial wastewater reuse
Download PDF
Download PDF
  • Article
  • Open access
  • Published: 16 March 2026

Integrated techno-enviroeconomic and life-cycle assessment of a solar–green hydrogen hybrid system with industrial wastewater reuse

  • Irtaza Bashir Raja1,
  • Yasir Ahmad1,
  • Tariq Feroze2,
  • Mahwish Irtaza Choudhry1,
  • Muhammad Usman3 &
  • …
  • Bekir Genc4 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

  • 947 Accesses

  • Metrics details

We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Energy and society
  • Energy science and technology
  • Engineering
  • Environmental sciences

Abstract

The dual pressures of climate change and industrial water scarcity demand integrated solutions that jointly decarbonize power supply and reduce freshwater dependency. This study presents a site-specific, techno-enviroeconomic and life-cycle evaluation of a closed-loop Solar–Green Hydrogen Hybrid System (SGHHS) co-located with Gul Ahmed Textiles in Karachi, Pakistan, integrating 22.75 MW solar PV, a 2.25 MW PEM electrolyser, 450 kg hydrogen storage, and a 1 MW PEM fuel cell to deliver dispatchable, round-the-clock clean electricity under reduced nighttime demand. Unlike most SGHHS studies that assume freshwater inputs and decouple water treatment from system economics, this work quantifies an integrated wastewater-to-ultrapure-water loop (MBR→RO→DI) with fuel-cell condensate recovery within a unified TEA–LCA framework. A novel configuration treats 4,050 L/day of textile effluent to produce PEM-compatible ultrapure water while recovering and recirculating clean water for reuse within the facility, leveraging a broader on-site effluent availability of ~ 400,000 L/day. Over a 25-year project horizon, the integrated water loop reduces the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) from USD 0.10/kWh to USD 0.0866/kWh through avoided freshwater procurement and effluent-management costs. Life-cycle assessment indicates the potential to avoid over 157,000 metric tons of CO₂-equivalent emissions. The proposed framework supports multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and provides a replicable, data-driven pathway for circular water–energy integration and industrial decarbonization in semi-arid, resource-constrained regions.

Similar content being viewed by others

Efficient passive solar desalination using cooling tower integration and thermal insulation

Article Open access 06 July 2025

Scalable hydrocell technology based on recycled polymers for atmospheric water harvesting

Article Open access 10 December 2025

Solar-driven scalable hygroscopic gel for recycling water from passive plant transpiration and soil evaporation

Article 10 July 2024

Data availability

While site-specific raw industrial datasets (e.g., unaggregated wastewater composition and proprietary load profiles) are restricted due to contractual confidentiality, all techno-economic, environmental, and operational parameters required to reproduce the analysis are provided in the Supplementary Information (Tables S1–S8). These summarized and anonymized datasets enable independent verification of the study’s results.

Abbreviations

AEM:

Anion exchange membrane

ASTM:

American society for testing and materials

DI:

Deionization

FC:

Fuel cell

GHG:

Greenhouse gas

GHI:

Global horizontal irradiance

LCA:

Life cycle assessment

LCOE:

Levelized cost of electricity

LHV:

Lower heating value

MBR:

Membrane bioreactor

PEM:

Proton exchange membrane

PTC:

Parabolic trough collector

PV:

Photovoltaic

RO:

Reverse osmosis

SGHHS:

Solar–green hydrogen hybrid system

SOEC:

Solid oxide electrolysis cell

TEA:

Techno-economic assessment

TMY:

Typical meteorological year

PPV :

Electrical power output of PV system kW

PPV,inst :

Installed PV capacity kW

Gt :

Solar irradiance on tilted surface W·m⁻²

PR:

Performance ratio of PV system

Pel :

Electrical input power to electrolyzer kW

mH2 :

Hydrogen production rate kg·h⁻¹

PFC :

Electrical power output of fuel cell kW

Eann :

Annual electricity supplied kWh·yr⁻¹

Ccap :

Capital expenditure USD

Cop :

Annual operating expenditure USD·yr⁻¹

r:

Discount rate %

n:

Project lifetime years

LCOE:

Levelized cost of electricity USD·kWh⁻¹

EFgrid :

Grid emission factor kg CO₂·kWh⁻¹

CO2,avoided :

Avoided CO₂ emissions kg CO₂

Wel :

Electrolyzer water demand L·day⁻¹

EMBR :

Specific energy of MBR process kWh·m⁻³

ERO :

Specific energy of RO process kWh·m⁻³

EDI :

Specific energy of DI process kWh·m⁻³

Rrec :

Water recovery ratio

References

  1. Gielen, D. et al. The role of renewable energy in the global energy transformation. Energy Strategy Rev. 24, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2019.02.001 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Javan, K. et al. A review of interconnected challenges in the water–energy–food nexus: Urban pollution perspective towards sustainable development. Sci. Total Environ. 912, 169319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169319 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Aberilla, J. M., Gallego-Schmid, A., Stamford, L. & Azapagic, A. Synergistic generation of energy and water in remote communities: Economic and environmental assessment of current situation and future scenarios. Energy Convers. Manag. 207, 112543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112543 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Raza, M. Y. & Lin, B. Energy substitution possibilities and technological progress in Pakistan’s industrial sector. Appl. Energy 376(Part B), 124300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124300 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Strielkowski, W., Civín, L., Tarkhanova, E., Tvaronavičienė, M. & Petrenko, Y. Renewable energy in the sustainable development of the electrical power sector: A review. Energies 14 (24), 8240. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248240 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Nasser, M., Megahed, T. F., Ookawara, S. & Hassan, H. A review of water electrolysis–based systems for hydrogen production using hybrid/solar/wind energy systems. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 29 (58), 86994–87018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23323-y (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Gu, X., Ying, Z., Zheng, X., Dou, B. & Cui, G. Photovoltaic-based energy system coupled with energy storage for all-day stable PEM electrolytic hydrogen production. Renew. Energy 209, 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.02.067 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Singh, B. J., Chakraborty, A. & Sehgal, R. A systematic review of industrial wastewater management: Evaluating challenges and enablers. J. Environ. Manage. 348, 119230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119230 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Pal, P. Industry-specific water treatment: Case studies. In Industrial Water Treatment Process Technology (pp. 243–511). Elsevier. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-810391-3.00006-0

  10. Ahmad, R., Liu, G., Rehman, S. A. U. & Rizwan, [A. I. Pakistan road towards Paris Agreement: Potential decarbonization pathways and future emissions reduction by a developing country. Energy 314, 134075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.134075 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Ahmad, S. et al. Water resources and their management in Pakistan: A critical analysis on challenges and implications. Water-Energy Nexus 6, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2023.137150 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Curtin, J., McInerney, C. & Ó Gallachóir, B. Financial incentives to mobilise local citizens as investors in low-carbon technologies: A systematic literature review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 75, 534–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.02.070 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Raja, I. B., Ahmad, Y., Feroze, T. & Genc, B. Techno-enviroeconomic modeling of a solar–green hydrogen system with industrial wastewater reuse via integrated hourly simulation–LCA–DCF. New Energy Exploitation and Application 5(1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10.54963/neea.v5i1.1863 (2026).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Yue, M. et al. Hydrogen energy systems: A critical review of technologies, applications, trends and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 146, 111180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111180 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Yue, M. et al. A review of solar forecasting, its dependence on atmospheric sciences, and implications for grid integration: Towards carbon neutrality. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 161, 112348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112348 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Adinkrah, J. et al. Artificial intelligence-based strategies for sustainable energy planning and electricity demand estimation: A systematic review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 210, 115161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115161 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ferrero, D., Gamba, M., Lanzini, A. & Santarelli, M. Power-to-gas hydrogen: Techno-economic assessment of processes towards a multi-purpose energy carrier. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 70, 411–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.084 (2016).

  18. Rabanal Arabach, J. Development of a c-Si photovoltaic module for desert climates (Master’s thesis). (2019).

  19. Mazloomi, S. K. & Sulaiman, N. Influencing factors of water electrolysis electrical efficiency. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16(6), 4257–4263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.03.036 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Rakousky, C., Keeley, G. P., Wippermann, K., Carmo, M. & Stolten, D. The stability challenge on the pathway to high-current-density polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolyzers. Electrochim. Acta. 278, 324–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.05.054 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bănăduc, D. et al. Freshwater as a sustainable resource and generator of secondary resources in the 21st century: Stressors, threats, risks, management and protection strategies, and conservation approaches. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19(24), 16570. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416570 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Cairone, S. et al. Revolutionizing wastewater treatment toward circular economy and carbon neutrality goals: Pioneering sustainable and efficient solutions for automation and advanced process control with smart and cutting-edge technologies. J. Water Process Eng. 63, 105486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105486 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Silva, J. A. Wastewater treatment and reuse for sustainable water resources management: A systematic literature review. Sustainability 15(14), 10940. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410940 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Alrbai, M., Al-Dahidi, S., Al-Ghussain, L., Alahmer, A. & Hayajneh, H. Minimizing grid energy consumption in wastewater treatment plants: Towards green energy solutions, water sustainability, and cleaner environment. Sci. Total Environ. 926, 172139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172139 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Moser, P. B. et al. Effect of MBR-H2O2/UV hybrid pre-treatment on nanofiltration performance for the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater. Sep. Purif. Technol. 192, 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2017.08.016 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Charcosset, C. Membrane processes in biotechnology: An overview. Biotechnol. Adv. 24 (5), 482–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.05.001 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Raja, I. B., Ahmad, Y. & Feroze, T. Regional variability in the performance of Solar-Green Hydrogen Hybrid Energy Systems (SGHHES): Synergistic enviro-economic analysis and evaluation across six climatic zones. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 138, 681–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.02.4681 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Raja, I. B. et al. Forecast-driven blockchain framework for multi-node solar–hydrogen hybrid energy systems. Int. J. Sustain. Energ. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2025.2585575 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Zakariazadeh, A., Ahshan, R., Al Abri, R. & Al-Abri, M. Renewable energy integration in sustainable water systems: A review. Cleaner Eng. Technol. 18, 100722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2024.100722 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Oni, A. M., Mohsin, A. S. M., Rahman, M. M. & Bhuian, M. B. H. A comprehensive evaluation of solar cell technologies, associated loss mechanisms, and efficiency enhancement strategies for photovoltaic cells. Energy Rep. 11, 3345–3366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.04.045 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Hafeez, A. et al. Solar powered decentralized water systems: A cleaner solution of the industrial wastewater treatment and clean drinking water supply challenges. J. Clean. Prod. 289, 125717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125717 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Zawadzki, P., Kończak, B. & Smoliński, A. Municipal wastewater reclamation: Reclaimed water for hydrogen production by electrolysis – A case study. Measurement 216, 112928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2023.112928 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Merabet, N. H., Kerboua, K. & Hoinkis, J. Hydrogen production from wastewater: A comprehensive review of conventional and solar powered technologies. Renew. Energy 226, 120412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2024.02.030 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Sharma, A. & Dahiya, P. Characterization of wastewater and effluents remediation through nanotechnology for efficient reclamation and reuse. In Emerging Technologies in Applied and Environmental Microbiology: Developments in Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology (pp. 65–83). Springer. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47134-0_5

  35. Nahar, N., Haque, M. S. & Haque, S. E. Groundwater conservation, and recycling and reuse of textile wastewater in a denim industry of Bangladesh. Water Resour. Ind. 31, 100249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2024.100249 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Batool, F., Afzal, M. H., Raja, I. B., Zulqurnain, Usmani, H. R. & Soomro, A. Intelligent supply chains 5.0: The role of artificial intelligence in building predictive, sustainable and adaptive logistics systems. J. Asian Dev. Stud. 14 (4), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.62345/jads.2025.14.4.5 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Samanta, K. K., Pandit, P., Samanta, P. & Basak, S. Water consumption in textile processing and sustainable approaches for its conservation. Water in Textiles and Fashion: Consumption, Footprint, and Life Cycle Assessment, 41–59. (2019).

  38. Sojitra, D., Kandya, A. & Shabiimam, M. A. Assessing the effectiveness of common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) in the state of Gujarat, India using reliability analysis. Cleaner Water 2, 100038 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Akash, F. A. et al. Greening the grid: A comprehensive review of renewable energy in Bangladesh. Heliyon 10(5), e27477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27477 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Othman, M. E. F., Sidek, L. M., Basri, H., El-Shafie, A. & Ahmed, A. N. Climate challenges for sustainable hydropower development and operational resilience: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 209, 115108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115108 (2025).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Zarei, M. Wastewater resources management for energy recovery from circular economy perspective. Water-Energy Nexus. 3, 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2020.09.001 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Amutha, K. Sustainable chemical management and zero discharges. In Sustainable Fibres and Textiles (pp. 347–366). The Textile Institute. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102041-8.00012-3

  43. Wren, B. Sustainable supply chain management in the fast fashion industry: A comparative study of current efforts and best practices to address the climate crisis. Clean. Logist. Supply Chain 4, 100032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clscn.2022.100032 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Raja, I. B., Ahmad, Y., Feroze, T., Genc, B. & Usman, M. Synergistic enviro-economic evaluation of a solar–green hydrogen hybrid system (SGHHS) for continuous clean energy using a region-specific techno-economic and environmental framework. EPJ Web of Conferences, 351, Article 01005. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202635101005

  45. Wang, J. & Azam, W. Natural resource scarcity, fossil fuel energy consumption, and total greenhouse gas emissions in top emitting countries. Geosci. Front. 15(2), 101757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2024.101757 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Lebu, S., Lee, A., Salzberg, A. & Bauza, V. Adaptive strategies to enhance water security and resilience in low- and middle-income countries: A critical review. Sci. Total Environ. 925, 171520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171520 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Mirza, U. K., Maroto-Valer, M. M. & Ahmad, N. Status and outlook of solar energy use in Pakistan. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 7 (6), 501–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2003.02.002 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Kenway, S. J. et al. Defining water-related energy for global comparison, clearer communication, and sharper policy. J. Clean. Prod. 236, 117502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117502 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Algarni, S., Tirth, V., Alqahtani, T., Alshehery, S. & Kshirsagar, P. Contribution of renewable energy sources to the environmental impacts and economic benefits for sustainable development. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 56, 103098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103098 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Oyewo, B. Corporate governance and carbon emissions performance: International evidence on curvilinear relationships. J. Environ. Manage. 334, 117474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117474 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Hassan, Q. et al. The renewable energy role in the global energy transformations. Renew. Energy Focus 48, 100545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2024.100545 (2024).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Chang, J.-J., Mi, Z. & Wei, Y.-M. Temperature and GDP: A review of climate econometrics analysis. Struct. Change Econ. Dyn. 66, 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2023.07.006 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  53. Jordan, D. C. & Kurtz, S. R. Photovoltaic degradation rates—An analytical review. Progress Photovoltaics. 21 (1), 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.1182 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Buttler, A. & Spliethoff, H. Current status of water electrolysis for energy storage, grid balancing and sector coupling. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82, 2440–2454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.003\ (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  55. Staffell, I. et al. The role of hydrogen and fuel cells in the global energy system. Energy Environ. Sci. 12, 463–491. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EE01157E (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Ryan, L., Dillon, J., La Monaca, S., Byrne, J. & O’Malley, M. Assessing the system and investor value of utility-scale solar PV. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 64, 506–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.080 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  57. Farooque, M. & Maru, H. Fuel cells – Molten carbonate fuel cells: Full-scale prototypes. In Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources (pp. 508–518). Elsevier. (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0444527455002690

  58. Braga, L. B. et al. Comparative analysis between a PEM fuel cell and an internal combustion engine driving an electricity generator: Technical, economical and ecological aspects. Appl. Therm. Eng. 63(1), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.11.023 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Shi, Y., Bilal, M., Ho, H. C. & Omar, A. Urbanization and regional air pollution across South Asian developing countries – A nationwide land use regression for ambient PM2.5 assessment in Pakistan. Environ. Pollut. 266(Part 2), 115145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115145 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Shokri, A. & Sanavi Fard, M. Water-energy nexus: Cutting edge water desalination technologies and hybridized renewable-assisted systems; challenges and future roadmaps. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 57, 103173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103173 (2023).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Clark, R., Reed, J. & Sunderland, T. Bridging funding gaps for climate and sustainable development: Pitfalls, progress and potential of private finance. Land Use Policy 71, 335–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.11.013 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, 43701, Pakistan

    Irtaza Bashir Raja, Yasir Ahmad & Mahwish Irtaza Choudhry

  2. Sustainable Advanced Geomechanical Engineering, Military College of Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology, Risalpur, 23200, Pakistan

    Tariq Feroze

  3. University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, 47050, Pakistan

    Muhammad Usman

  4. School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Bekir Genc

Authors
  1. Irtaza Bashir Raja
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yasir Ahmad
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tariq Feroze
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mahwish Irtaza Choudhry
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Muhammad Usman
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Bekir Genc
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

- Conceptualization: Irtaza Bashir Raja- Methodology: Irtaza Bashir Raja and Yasir Ahmad- Formal Analysis: Irtaza Bashir Raja- Investigation: Irtaza Bashir Raja, Mahwish Irtaza Choudhry- Resources: Yasir Ahmad- Data Curation: Irtaza Bashir Raja- Writing – Original Draft Preparation: Irtaza Bashir Raja- Writing – Review & Editing: Yasir Ahmad, Tariq Feroze, and Muhammad Usman- Visualization: Irtaza Bashir Raja- Supervision: Yasir Ahmad, Bekir Genc- Project Administration: Yasir Ahmad- Validation: Tariq Feroze and Muhammad Usman.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bekir Genc.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1 (download DOCX )

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Raja, I.B., Ahmad, Y., Feroze, T. et al. Integrated techno-enviroeconomic and life-cycle assessment of a solar–green hydrogen hybrid system with industrial wastewater reuse. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-44016-3

Download citation

  • Received: 22 September 2025

  • Accepted: 09 March 2026

  • Published: 16 March 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-44016-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Download PDF

Advertisement

Explore content

  • Research articles
  • News & Comment
  • Collections
  • Subjects
  • Follow us on Facebook
  • Follow us on X
  • Sign up for alerts
  • RSS feed

About the journal

  • About Scientific Reports
  • Contact
  • Journal policies
  • Guide to referees
  • Calls for Papers
  • Editor's Choice
  • Journal highlights
  • Open Access Fees and Funding

Publish with us

  • For authors
  • Language editing services
  • Open access funding
  • Submit manuscript

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Find a job
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

Scientific Reports (Sci Rep)

ISSN 2045-2322 (online)

nature.com footer links

About Nature Portfolio

  • About us
  • Press releases
  • Press office
  • Contact us

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Articles by subject
  • protocols.io
  • Nature Index

Publishing policies

  • Nature portfolio policies
  • Open access

Author & Researcher services

  • Reprints & permissions
  • Research data
  • Language editing
  • Scientific editing
  • Nature Masterclasses
  • Research Solutions

Libraries & institutions

  • Librarian service & tools
  • Librarian portal
  • Open research
  • Recommend to library

Advertising & partnerships

  • Advertising
  • Partnerships & Services
  • Media kits
  • Branded content

Professional development

  • Nature Awards
  • Nature Careers
  • Nature Conferences

Regional websites

  • Nature Africa
  • Nature China
  • Nature India
  • Nature Japan
  • Nature Middle East
  • Privacy Policy
  • Use of cookies
  • Legal notice
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms & Conditions
  • Your US state privacy rights
Springer Nature

© 2026 Springer Nature Limited

Nature Briefing Anthropocene

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Anthropocene newsletter — what matters in anthropocene research, free to your inbox weekly.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing: Anthropocene