Abstract
What are you feeling right now? Were you aware of where your mind was a moment ago? Questions like these provide simple, face valid measures of momentary experience. Ultra-brief measures using the experience sampling method (ESM), consisting of a few items that can be completed in about a minute, may also be highly scalable and increase engagement in applied contexts. We developed single-item measures of teen wellbeing using ESM in four domains: awareness, connection, insight, and purpose. Then, we evaluated item relevance and clarity through user testing with 12 teens aged 14–18 years old and made revisions based on their feedback. Finally, we tested the new items in the context of ESM with 156 teens aged 13–18 years old, over a period of 8 days with ESM questions sent via text message three times each day outside school hours. We found one or more items for each domain with acceptable validity, response variability, and a normal response distribution. We assessed convergent, divergent, and predictive validity, and found significant relationships for comparison measures of each type. Future research should further investigate using these measures in the context of interventions that include training in these skills-based domains.
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank Levi Huang for project management; Annelise Schuler, Julie Regina, Sam Henschen, and Yuhe Zhou for conducting the user testing; Cortland Dahl, Matt Hirshberg, and Simon Goldberg for feedback on the development of the ESM items; David Elderbrock for technical assistance; Emily Carter for quality assurance testing.
Funding
This study was funded by the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative.
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Competing interests
Dr. Tammi R.A. Kral is employed with the non-profit organization, Humin, where Dr. Raquel Tatar holds a leadership position, and where Dr. Richard J. Davidson is the founder, president, and serves on the board of directors. No donors, either anonymous or identified, have participated in the design, conduct, or reporting of research results in this manuscript.
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Appendix
Appendix
Initial item bank for user testing
Awareness items:
- 1.
What are you feeling just now? [context question 1]
- a.
Revised to: What is the strongest emotion you have been feeling in the past 10 min?
- a.
- 2.
How aware were you of how you were feeling just now?
- a.
Revised to: How much did you notice how you were feeling emotionally before we asked?
- a.
- 3.
How intense was the emotion you were feeling just now? [context question 2]
- a.
Revised to: How intense was the emotion that you were feeling in the past 10 min?
- a.
- 4.
In the past few moments, did you recognize how your state of mind was influencing your perspective?
- a.
Revised to: How aware were you of how you were feeling before we asked?
- a.
- 5.
How focused were you just now?
- a.
Revised to: How distracted were you in the past 10 min?
- a.
- 6.
How aware were you of feeling this way?
- a.
Revised to: Had you noticed you were feeling this way before we asked?
- a.
Insight items:
- 1.
How aware are you right now of how your current beliefs and expectations are influencing how you are experiencing the world?
- a.
Revised to: In the past 10 min, did you recognize how your feelings were influencing your outlook on things?
- a.
- 2.
In this moment, do you feel you understand why you feel and think the way you do?
- a.
Revised to: In the past 10 min, did you understand why you think and feel the way you do?
- a.
- 3.
Over the past 24 h, how frequently have you noticed that your mental/emotional state was influencing your take on things?
- a.
Revised to: Did you recognize how your thoughts and feelings were influencing your behavior before we asked?
- a.
Connection items:
- 1.
How do you feel right now? [response options from lonely to neutral to connected; dropped]
- 2.
How connected do you feel with others right now?
- a.
Revised to: How connected to others did you feel in the past 10 min?
- a.
- 3.
Today, how often did you notice receiving support from others?
- a.
Revised to: In the past 10 min, how often did you feel you were supported by others?
- a.
- 4.
Today, how often did you feel close to others?
- a.
Revised to: In the past 10 min, how often did you feel connected to others?
- a.
- 5.
Today, how often did you feel it was important to look out for one another vs. yourself? [dropped]
- 6.
Please answer how your relationship with each of the people below was today … [response options: Terrible; Somewhat terrible; Meh; OK; Good; Great; Terrific] [dropped]
- a.
My parents
- b.
My closest friends
- c.
My siblings
- d.
School friends/acquaintances
- a.
Purpose items:
- 1.
In the past few minutes, to what extent are your actions aligned with your values? [dropped]
- 2.
To what extent do you view what you’re doing right now as personally fulfilling?
- a.
Revised to: To what extent do you view what you’re doing in the past 10 min as personally fulfilling?
- a.
- 3.
How much fulfillment do you feel in this moment?
- a.
Revised to: How much fulfillment did you feel in the past 10 min?
- a.
- 4.
Do you see your personal values reflected in how you are engaging in the activity you’ve been doing these past few minutes?
- a.
Revised to: Do you see your personal values reflected in the activity you’ve been doing these past 10 min?
- a.
- 5.
How do you view what you’ve been doing in the past few minutes? [response scale from meaningless to meaningful]
- a.
Revised to: How do you view what you’ve been doing in the past 10 min? [Response options: Extremely meaningless, Somewhat meaningless, Neutral, Somewhat meaningful, Extremely meaningful]
- a.
ESM instructions
All the questions in this mini-survey will ask you about the past 10 min—please answer them considering the past 10 min BEFORE you began this survey.
ESM set 1
- Item 1:
What is the strongest emotion you have been feeling in the past 10 min?*
Response options: Happy, Sad, Stressed, Bored, Angry, Scared, Upset, Disgusted, Calm, Excited, Other (Please describe).
- (A1)
Item 2: How much did you notice how you were feeling emotionally before we asked?
Response options: Not at all aware, A little aware, Somewhat aware, Very aware, Extremely aware.
Items 3–5 (random order):
- (C1)
How connected to others did you feel in the past 10 min?
Response options: Not at all connected, A little connected, Somewhat connected, Very connected, extremely connected.
- (I1)
In the past 10 min, did you understand why you think and feel the way you do?
Response options: Not at all aware, A little aware, Somewhat aware, Very aware, Extremely aware.
- (S1)
In the past 10 min, how much did you feel nervous or stressed?
Response options: Extremely stressed, Very stressed, Somewhat stressed, A little stressed, Not at all stressed.
ESM set 2
- (A3)
Item 1: How distracted were you in the past 10 min?
Response options: Extremely distracted, Very distracted, Somewhat distracted, A little distracted, Not at all distracted
- (A4)
Item 2: Had you noticed you were feeling this way before we asked?
Response options: Not at all aware, A little aware, Somewhat aware, Very aware, Extremely aware.
Items 3–5 (random order):
- (C2)
In the past 10 min, how often did you feel you were supported by others?
Response options: Not at all supported, Occasionally supported, Somewhat often supported, Very often supported, Extremely often supported.
- (P1)
To what extent do you view what you’re doing in the past 10 min as personally fulfilling?
Response options: Not at all fulfilling, A little fulfilling, Somewhat fulfilling, Very fulfilling, Extremely fulfilling.
- (S1)
In the past 10 min, how much did you feel nervous or stressed?
Response options: Extremely stressed, Very stressed, Somewhat stressed, A little stressed, Not at all stressed.
ESM set 3
- Item 1:
How intense was the emotion that you were feeling in the past 10 min?*
Response options: Not at all intense, A little intense, Somewhat intense, Very intense, Extremely intense.
- (A2)
Item 2: How aware were you of how you were feeling before we asked?
Response options: Not at all aware, A little aware, Somewhat aware, Very aware, Extremely aware.
Items 3–5 (random order):
- (I2)
In the past 10 min, did you recognize how your feelings were influencing your outlook on things?
Response options: Not at all aware, A little aware, Somewhat aware, Very aware, Extremely aware.
- (P2)
How do you view what you’ve been doing in the past 10 min?
Response options: Extremely meaningless, Somewhat meaningless, Neutral, Somewhat meaningful, Extremely meaningful.
- (S1)
In the past 10 min, how much did you feel nervous or stressed?
Response options: Extremely stressed, Very stressed, Somewhat stressed, A little stressed, Not at all stressed.
ESM set 4
Items 1–5 (all randomized).
- (C3)
In the past 10 min, how often did you feel connected to others?
Response options: Not at all connected, Occasionally connected, Somewhat often connected, Very often connected, Extremely often connected.
- (I3)
Did you recognize how your thoughts and feelings were influencing your behavior before we asked?
Response options: Not at all aware, A little aware, Somewhat aware, Very aware, Extremely aware.
- (P3)
How much fulfillment did you feel in the past 10 min?
Response options: Not at all fulfilled, A little fulfilled, Somewhat fulfilled, Very fulfilled, Extremely fulfilled.
- (P4)
Do you see your personal values reflected in the activity you’ve been doing these past 10 min?
Response options: Not at all reflected, Occasionally reflected, Somewhat often reflected, Very often reflected, Extremely often reflected.
- (S1)
In the past 10 min, how much did you feel nervous or stressed?
Response options: Extremely stressed, Very stressed, Somewhat stressed, A little stressed, Not at all stressed.
*Note: These items are context questions and not used directly as wellbeing measures in the current study.
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Kral, T.R.A., Wilson-Mendenhall, C.D., Jacobucci, R. et al. Development and validation of single-item experience sampling measures of wellbeing in teens. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-51642-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-51642-4
