Fig. 3: Summary of evidence of race-based criminal sentencing bias (differential treatment) in federal judicial districts.

In Fig. 2, 14 federal districts display evidence of differential treatment by judges and other members of the courtroom workgroup even in a modeling framework that allows sentences to be conditioned separately for each district. In the figure above, we summarize the disparities and visualize their 95% confidence intervals. Eleven districts show evidence of bias against Black defendants (blue circles). Three districts show evidence of bias against defendants who have another racial identification (ARI, red squares), a category that includes Native Americans. The fourteen districts come from seven of the federal circuits. Circuit numbers appear in the center of each subdivided section above.