Fig. 1: Observed TP SAT response to tropical eruptions.

a Boreal-winter (DJF) TP SAT (K) from 1880 to 2020 in the observation of GISTEMP. Red dots mark the eruption years of five recent large tropical eruptions, i.e., 1883 Krakatau, 1902 Santa Maria, 1963 Agung, 1982 El Chichón, and 1991 Pinatubo. b Composite monthly TP SAT anomaly (dashed blue line, K) and global-mean land SAT anomaly (dashed dark line, K) with respect to the five years preceding the five eruptions in GISTEMP. 3-month moving average is shown. Solid lines denote anomalies significant at the 95% confidence level. “0” denote the eruption year, and “−1/ + 1” one year before/after the eruption. The blue and gray horizontal dashed lines denote standart deviation of winter TP SAT anomaly and global land SAT anomaly, respectively. c Composite SAT anomaly (contour, K) in the first winter after the five tropical eruptions in GISTEMP. Slash denotes SAT anomaly significant at the 95% confidence level. Contour interval is 0.1 K. Aslo shown is the composite SAT anomaly (dots with color, K) for 1982 and 1991 eruptions in Chinese Meteorology Administration (CMA) stationary observation. The biggest dot denote Qinhai-Henan station with a maximum cooling of −3.8 K. The areas of the TP with altitude above 2500 m are outlined by purple lines.