Fig. 5

Detection of dopamine by cyclic voltammetry in response to ultrasound. a Representative cyclic voltammograms used to verify the presence of dopamine released from liposomes. Top: non-tethered liposomes. Bottom: HGN-tethered liposomes. b Representative example of linear release of dopamine from HGN-tethered and non-tethered liposomes over successive ultrasound applications at 20 °C (room temperature). Note: each data point represents 2–5 s of 2.4 W cm⁻² ultrasound exposure applied every 3 min. The total experiment run time is ~50 min for control non-tethered liposomes, and ~80 min for HGN-tethered liposomes. c Schematic illustration of the circulating flow system. d Representative example of phasic dopamine release at 35 °C in a circulating flow system. Blue bars indicate a 9 s continuous ultrasound application at 2.4 W cm⁻² (0.64 MPa) every 20 s