Fig. 1: Formation of two types of wheel–axle assemblies based only on noncovalent intermolecular interactions.

a (i) Metal-first method for non-threaded assembly and (ii) axle-first method for rotaxane-type threaded assembly. b Molecular components used in this study, H4L1/H4L2, L1Ni2/L2Ni2, DB24C8, and axles (G1•PF6, G2•PF6, G3•PF6, and G4•PF6).