Table 3 Risk of bias assessment

1

Alfonsi et al. (2017)³²

3

1

2

2

4

5

2

2

21

91

Low

2

Lachaud et al. (2018)³³

3

1

3

2

4

4

2

2

21

91

Low

3

Chakravarty (2016)⁴³

3

1

1

2

4

4

1

2

18

78

Low

4

Cheteni (2016)³⁴

1

2

2

2

4

3

1

2

17

74

Moderate

5

Singh et al. (2010)⁴⁴

3

1

1

1

4

3

1

2

16

70

Moderate

6

Khosravipour and Soleimanpour (2012)⁴⁵

3

1

2

2

3

2

1

2

16

70

Moderate

7

Gambo Akpoko and Kudi (2007)³⁵

2

1

3

2

4

2

0

2

16

70

Moderate

8

Hudson et al. (2017)³⁶

3

1

3

1

4

2

0

2

16

70

Moderate

9

World Bank (2009)³⁷

1

1

1

2

3

2

1

2

13

57

Moderate

10

Baah (2014)³⁸

1

2

2

2

4

2

1

1

15

65

Moderate

11

Manalo et al. (2014)⁴⁶

1

1

3

2

4

2

0

1

14

61

Moderate

12

Odongo et al. (2017)³⁹

1

1

1

1

4

2

0

1

11

48

Serious

13

Kinyanjui and Noor (2013)⁴⁰

1

1

2

1

4

2

1

0

12

52

Moderate

14

Latopa and Rashid (2015)⁴¹

1

1

1

1

2

1

0

1

8

35

Serious

15

Channal et al. (2017)⁴⁷

1

1

3

1

1

1

1

1

10

43

Serious

16

Shoulders et al. (2011)⁴²

1

1

0

1

2

1

0

1

7

30

Serious