Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Perspective
  • Published:

Chitin and chitosan derived from crustacean waste valorization streams can support food systems and the UN Sustainable Development Goals

Nature Food volume 3, pages 822–828 (2022)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Crustacean waste, consisting of shells and other inedible fractions, represents an underutilized source of chitin. Here, we explore developments in the field of crustacean-waste-derived chitin and chitosan extraction and utilization, evaluating emerging food systems and biotechnological applications associated with this globally abundant waste stream. We consider how improving the efficiency and selectivity of chitin separation from wastes, redesigning its chemical structure to improve biotechnology-derived chitosan, converting it into value-added chemicals, and developing new applications for chitin (such as the fabrication of advanced nanomaterials used in fully biobased electric devices) can contribute towards the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Finally, we consider how gaps in the research could be filled and future opportunities could be developed to make optimal use of this important waste stream for food systems and beyond.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: The global production of crustaceans in 2015 and 2019.
Fig. 2: Growth in chitin and chitosan research projects, publications and patents from 2000 to 2022.
Fig. 3: The evolutionary cascade of chitin–chitosan applications.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Sustainability in Action (FAO, 2020); https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en

  2. Yan, N. & Chen, X. Sustainability: don’t waste seafood waste. Nature 524, 155–157 (2015).

    ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Crini, G. Historical review on chitin and chitosan biopolymers. Environ. Chem. Lett. 17, 1623–1643 (2019).

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Sustainable Technologies for the Production of Biodegradable Materials Based on Natural Chitin-Nanofibrils Derived by Waste of Fish Industry, to Produce Food Grade Packaging (N-CHITOPACK) (EU-CORDIS, 2012).

  5. Chitosan Activates Resistance Against Pathogens After Exposure Production of Chitosans from Shrimp Shells for Applications in Plant Disease Protection (CARAPAX) (EU-CORDIS, 2001).

  6. Sieber, V. et al. in Grand Challenges in Marine Biotechnology (eds Rampelotto, P. H. & Trincone, A.) 555–578 (Springer, 2018).

  7. NanoBioEngineering of BioInspired BioPolymers (NANO3BIO) (EU-CORDIS, 2013).

  8. Demonstrable and Replicable Cluster Implementing Systemic Solutions Through Multilevel Circular Value Chains for Eco-efficient Valorization of Fishing and Fish Industries Side-Streams (EcoeFISHent) (EU-CORDIS, 2021).

  9. Lee, C. G., Da Silva, C. A., Lee, J.-Y., Hartl, D. & Elias, J. A. Chitin regulation of immune responses: an old molecule with new roles. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 20, 684–689 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Sanchez, C., Arribart, H. & Guille, M. M. G. Biomimetism and bioinspiration as tools for the design of innovative materials and systems. Nat. Mater. 4, 277–288 (2005).

    ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Basa, S. et al. The pattern of acetylation defines the priming activity of chitosan tetramers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 1975–1986 (2020).

  12. Tursi, A. A review on biomass: importance, chemistry, classification, and conversion. Biofuel Res. J. 6, 962–979 (2019).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Ghanem, A., Ghaly, A. E. & Chaulk, M. Effect of shrimp processing procedures on the quality and quantity of extracted chitin from the shells of northern shrimp Pandalus borealis. J. Aquat. Food Prod. Technol. 12, 63–79 (2003).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kerton, F. M., Liu, Y., Omari, K. W. & Hawboldt, K. Green chemistry and the ocean-based biorefinery. Green Chem. 15, 860–871 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Pacheco, N. et al. Structural characterization of chitin and chitosan obtained by biological and chemical methods. Biomacromolecules 12, 3285–3290 (2011).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Chen, X., Yang, H., Zhong, Z. & Yan, N. Base-catalysed, one-step mechanochemical conversion of chitin and shrimp shells into low molecular weight chitosan. Green Chem. 19, 2783–2792 (2017).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Therien, J. P. D., Hammerer, F., Friščić, T. & Auclair, K. Mechanoenzymatic breakdown of chitinous material to N-acetylglucosamine: the benefits of a solventless environment. ChemSusChem 12, 3481–3490 (2019).

  18. Naqvi, S. et al. A recombinant fungal chitin deacetylase produces fully defined chitosan oligomers with novel patterns of acetylation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 82, 6645–6655 (2016).

    ADS  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Wang, R. et al. Engineered and laser‐processed chitosan biopolymers for sustainable and biodegradable triboelectric power generation. Adv. Mater. 30, 1706267 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  20. You, J., Li, M., Ding, B., Wu, X. & Li, C. Crab chitin‐based 2D soft nanomaterials for fully biobased electric devices. Adv. Mater. 29, 1606895 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Ryu, J. H., Yoon, H. Y., Sun, I.-C., Kwon, I. C. & Kim, K. Tumor-targeting glycol chitosan nanoparticles for cancer heterogeneity. Adv. Mater. 32, 2002197 (2020).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Sorenson, J., Kent, S., Smith, I., Donovan, N. & Wilke, W. Environmental bioremediation using shell as an electron donor. US patent 20040195176A1 (2006).

  23. Sieczkowski, M., Smith, D. & Wilke, W. New bioremediation substrate for mine influenced water remediation and methods of use. WO patent WO2008134654A1 (2008).

  24. IHS-Markit Pesticides Market Analysis (S&P Global, 2019).

  25. Gitis, V. & Hankins, N. Water treatment chemicals: trends and challenges. J. Water Process Eng. 25, 34–38 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Wang, X. & Zhao, J. Encapsulation of the herbicide picloram by using polyelectrolyte biopolymers as layer-by-layer materials. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61, 3789–3796 (2013).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Proposal to Add Chitosan to the List of Active Ingredients Permitted in Exempted Minimum Risk Pesticide Products EPA-HQ-OPP-2019-0701-0009 (Environmental Protection Agency, 2019).

  28. Van der Krieken, W., Rutten, W. & Jans, C. Polyelectrolyte complexes for biocide enhancement. US patent US10342228B2 (2017).

  29. Renault, F., Sancey, B., Badot, P. M. & Crini, G. Chitosan for coagulation/flocculation processes—an eco-friendly approach. Eur. Polym. J. 45, 1337–1348 (2009).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Bristow, J. & Demarco, R. Chitosan-coated hydrophobic glass and method of making. US patent US8852678B2 (2014).

  31. Bristow, J. & Demarco, R. Hydrophobic glass coated with chitosan and production method. Patent ES2648895T3 (2018).

  32. Wu, C. et al. Novel konjac glucomannan films with oxidized chitin nanocrystals immobilized red cabbage anthocyanins for intelligent food packaging. Food Hydrocoll. 98, 105245 (2020).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Fernández-Marín, R., Fernandes, S. C. M., Sánchez, M. Á. A. & Labidi, J. Halochromic and antioxidant capacity of smart films of chitosan/chitin nanocrystals with curcuma oil and anthocyanins. Food Hydrocoll. 123, 107119 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Guo, Y. Smart food packaging films. Nat. Food 2, 641–641 (2021).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Shrimp-Derived Chitosan GRAS Notification GRAS Notice GRN No. 170 (US Food and Drug Administration, 2005); https://www.cfsanappsexternal.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=GRASNotices&id=170

  36. NTP Technical Report on the Toxicity Study of Chitosan (CASRN 9012-76-4) Administered in Feed to Sprague Dawley [Crl: CD (SD)] Rats (NTP, 2017).

  37. Lam, M. et al. In-depth multidisciplinary review of the usage, manufacturing, regulations & market of dietary supplements. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 67, 102985 (2022).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Fernandez, J.-M., Stein, R. M. & Lo, A. W. Commercializing biomedical research through securitization techniques. Nat. Biotechnol. 30, 964–975 (2012).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Haastert-Talini, K. et al. Chitosan tubes of varying degrees of acetylation for bridging peripheral nerve defects. Biomaterials 34, 9886–9904 (2013).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Tacon, A. G. Trends in global aquaculture and aquafeed production: 2000–2017. Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac. 28, 43–56 (2020).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Schmid, B. C. et al. Uterine packing with chitosan-covered gauze for control of postpartum hemorrhage. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 209, 225.e221–225.e225 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Wu, W. et al. Neuroprotective effect of chitosan oligosaccharide on hypoxic–ischemic brain damage in neonatal rats. Neurochem. Res. 42, 3186–3198 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Nishimura, K., Ishihara, C., Ukei, S., Tokura, S. & Azuma, I. Stimulation of cytokine production in mice using deacetylated chitin. Vaccine 4, 151–156 (1986).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Prego, C. et al. Chitosan-based nanoparticles for improving immunization against hepatitis B infection. Vaccine 28, 2607–2614 (2010).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kumar, U. S., Afjei, R., Ferrara, K., Massoud, T. F. & Paulmurugan, R. Gold-nanostar-chitosan-mediated delivery of SARS-CoV-2 DNA vaccine for respiratory mucosal immunization: development and proof-of-principle. ACS Nano 15, 17582–17601 (2021).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Singh, B. et al. Chitosan-based particulate systems for the delivery of mucosal vaccines against infectious diseases. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 110, 54–64 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Maciel, V. B., Yoshida, C. M., Boesch, C., Goycoolea, F. M. & Carvalho, R. A. Iron-rich chitosan–pectin colloidal microparticles laden with ora-pro-nobis (Pereskia aculeata Miller) extract. Food Hydrocoll. 98, 105313 (2020).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ma, X. et al. Upcycling chitin-containing waste into organonitrogen chemicals via an integrated process. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 7719–7728 (2020).

    ADS  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Hou, W., Zhao, Q. & Liu, L. Selective conversion of chitin to levulinic acid catalyzed by ionic liquids: distinctive effect of N-acetyl groups. Green Chem. 22, 62–70 (2020).

  50. Gao, X. et al. Transformation of chitin and waste shrimp shells into acetic acid and pyrrole. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 4, 3912–3920 (2016).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Singh, A. et al. pH-responsive eco-friendly chitosan modified cenosphere/alginate composite hydrogel beads as carrier for controlled release of Imidacloprid towards sustainable pest control. Chem. Eng. J. 427, 131215 (2022).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Cho, C.-W. et al. Development of prediction models for adsorption properties of chitin and chitosan for micropollutants. Chem. Eng. J. 426, 131341 (2021).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Aricov, L. et al. Enhancement of laccase immobilization onto wet chitosan microspheres using an iterative protocol and its potential to remove micropollutants. J. Environ. Manage. 276, 111326 (2020).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Vakili, M. et al. Cross-linked chitosan/zeolite as a fixed-bed column for organic micropollutants removal from aqueous solution, optimization with RSM and artificial neural network. J. Environ. Manage. 250, 109434 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Zhao, F. et al. One-pot synthesis of trifunctional chitosan-EDTA-β-cyclodextrin polymer for simultaneous removal of metals and organic micropollutants. Sci. Rep. 7, 15811 (2017).

    ADS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Verma, M. et al. Simultaneous removal of heavy metals and ciprofloxacin micropollutants from wastewater using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-functionalized β-cyclodextrin-chitosan adsorbent. ACS Omega 6, 34624–34634 (2021).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Larbi, F. et al. Comparison of nanocrystals and nanofibers produced from shrimp shell α-chitin: from energy production to material cytotoxicity and Pickering emulsion properties. Carbohydr. Polym. 196, 385–397 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Millar, R. J. et al. Emission budgets and pathways consistent with limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Nat. Geosci. 10, 741–747 (2017).

    ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Leceta, I., Guerrero, P., Cabezudo, S. & Caba, K. D. L. Environmental assessment of chitosan-based films. J. Clean. Prod. 41, 312–318 (2013).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Carriger, J. F. et al. Pesticides of potential ecological concern in sediment from south Florida canals: an ecological risk prioritization for aquatic arthropods. Soil Sediment Contam. 15, 21–45 (2006).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Costello, C. et al. The future of food from the sea. Nature 588, 95–100 (2020).

    ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Zhongming, Z. & Wei, L. UNEP Food Waste Index Report 2021 (UNEP, 2021).

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, under the Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP) programme (vot. no. 56052, UMT/CRIM/2-2/5 Jilid 2 (11)). V.K.G. acknowledges the institutional research funding supported by Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC). M.T. and V.K.G. acknowledge that this work has been done under the umbrella of the MoU between Scotland’s Rural College and Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

    Hamid Amiri

  2. Environmental Research Institute, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

    Hamid Amiri

  3. Department of Mechanical Engineering of Agricultural Machinery, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran

    Mortaza Aghbashlo

  4. Laboratoire de ‘Chimie Verte et Produits Biobasés’, Haute Ecole Provinciale de Hainaut-Département AgroBioscience et Chimie, Ath, Belgium

    Minaxi Sharma

  5. Circular Bioeconomy Research Group, Shannon Applied Biotechnology Centre, Munster Technological University, Munster, Ireland

    James Gaffey

  6. BiOrbic, Bioeconomy Research Centre, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

    James Gaffey

  7. The Lincoln Institute for Agri-Food Technology, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK

    Louise Manning

  8. Kuwait Cancer Control Center, Kuwait, Kuwait

    Seyed Masoud Moosavi Basri

  9. Chembiotech Laboratories Ltd, Tenbury Wells, UK

    John F. Kennedy

  10. Biorefining and Advanced Materials Research Center, SRUC, Edinburgh, UK

    Vijai Kumar Gupta

  11. Center for Safe and Improved Food, SRUC, Edinburgh, UK

    Vijai Kumar Gupta

  12. Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

    Meisam Tabatabaei

Authors
  1. Hamid Amiri
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mortaza Aghbashlo
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Minaxi Sharma
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. James Gaffey
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Louise Manning
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Seyed Masoud Moosavi Basri
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. John F. Kennedy
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Vijai Kumar Gupta
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Meisam Tabatabaei
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

H.A. conceptualized the project, analysed the data and wrote the original draft. M.S., L.M. and J.F.K. analysed the data and reviewed and edited the original draft. J.G. collected and analysed the industrial data. S.M.M.B. studied the applications of chitosan and developed the illustrations. M.A., V.K.G. and M.T. contributed to this work throughout its conceptualization, including obtaining resources and funding, supervision, writing and editing.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Mortaza Aghbashlo, Vijai Kumar Gupta or Meisam Tabatabaei.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Food thanks Ning Yan, Nidia Caetano and Michael Martin for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Amiri, H., Aghbashlo, M., Sharma, M. et al. Chitin and chitosan derived from crustacean waste valorization streams can support food systems and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Nat Food 3, 822–828 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00591-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00591-y

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing: Translational Research

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Translational Research newsletter — top stories in biotechnology, drug discovery and pharma.

Get what matters in translational research, free to your inbox weekly. Sign up for Nature Briefing: Translational Research