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Air emissions during destruction of PFAS-containing materials

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment (2026)Cite this article

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Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are synthetic chemicals used across numerous industrial and consumer applications. Their persistence and toxicological impacts necessitate their removal from the environment and their complete destruction; however, many PFAS destruction technologies release gas-phase and aerosol-phase fluorinated products of incomplete destruction (PIDs). In this Review, we discuss the PIDs released by PFAS destruction methods and approaches to categorize and measure them. Existing and emerging technologies use thermal, chemical, electrical or biological approaches to degrade PFASs, with varying degrees of success. Although many technologies achieve destruction and removal efficiencies of more than 99.99%, this metric does not account for the formation of airborne PIDs. Methods are being developed to measure PIDs in air emissions to protect exposed communities and facilitate the closure of fluorine mass balances. The choice of sampling and analytical methods depends on the polarity and volatility of the PIDs. Closing the mass balance is important because PIDs such as CF4 can have unintended global impacts, and potential localized risks from exposure to PIDs remain uncertain. Therefore, diverse analytical methods are needed to comprehensively characterize PIDs; such characterization is important to identify PFAS destruction technologies that minimize atmospheric emissions and their associated environmental and human health risks.

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Fig. 1: Sources, transport and exposure points of PFAS-derived PIDs.
Fig. 2: Strategies for managing PFASs.
Fig. 3: Classification of PFAS destruction technologies.
Fig. 4: Categorizing PIDs.

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Acknowledgements

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or Department of Defense (DOD). Any mention of trade names, manufacturers or products does not imply an endorsement by the United States Government or the US EPA or DOD. US EPA and DOD and its employees do not endorse any commercial products, services or enterprises. This review was supported, in part, by funding from the US Army Corps of Engineers (W912HZ-23-2-0009) and various Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) and Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) projects through the US DOD.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Stefanie Silsby, Nathen Silsby & Detlef R. U. Knappe

  2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA

    Sarah Sühnholz, Mojtaba Qanbarzadeh, Shilai Hao, Timothy J. Strathmann & Christopher P. Higgins

  3. Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research — UFZ, Leipzig, Germany

    Sarah Sühnholz

  4. Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Air Methods and Characterization Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA

    Erin Shields & Stephen Jackson

  5. Office of Applied Science and Environmental Solutions, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Marc A. Mills

  6. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA

    Kyle Doudrick

  7. Department of Chemistry, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

    Cora Young

  8. Alcoa, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

    Rajat S. Ghosh

  9. Naval Sea Systems Command, Laboratory Quality and Accreditation Office, Goose Creek, SC, USA

    Janice Willey

  10. Chemistry Division, Research Department, Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division (NAWCWD), United States Navy Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), China Lake, CA, USA

    Patrick W. Fedick

  11. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Environment, Waite Campus, Urrbrae, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

    Jens Blotevogel

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Contributions

S. Silsby provided overall coordination for the Review. S. Silsby, S. Sühnholz, D.R.U.K. and C.P.H. developed the concept for the Review. Initial draft writing was conducted by S. Silsby, S. Sühnholz, M.Q., K.D., C.Y., D.R.U.K. and C.P.H. Figures were drafted by S. Silsby, S. Sühnholz, M.Q. and N.S. All authors contributed views and opinions, and reviewed the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Detlef R. U. Knappe or Christopher P. Higgins.

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Competing interests

R.S.G. is an employee of Alcoa Corporation, which is involved in bauxite mining, alumina refining and aluminium smelting operations worldwide. R.S.G. is an inventor of patents US9795920B2, US9327237B2, US8894748B2, US8137649B2, US7906089B2, US7645430B2 and EU2265357 in the area of gas exhaust treatment as well as patents US8673152B2, US8206586B2, US8157995B2, US7897049B2 and US5837145 in the area of water treatment. C.P.H., T.J.S. and S.H. are inventors on patent US11577111 related to the use of hydrothermal alkaline conditions for PFAS destruction. T.J.S. is also a paid technical advisor for Aquagga, Inc., which has licensed patent US11577111. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.

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Silsby, S., Sühnholz, S., Qanbarzadeh, M. et al. Air emissions during destruction of PFAS-containing materials. Nat Rev Earth Environ (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00755-x

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