Abstract
Understanding the strain tolerance of both standard and mechanically flexible battery electrodes is prerequisite for optimizing performance, safety, and longevity, particularly in heavy-duty applications, flexible electronics and wearables. Achieving this requires a deeper understanding of how mechanical strain drives electrode degradation. In this work, we directly compare the strain response of electrospun (flexible) and slurry-cast (conventional) electrodes. To simulate acute mechanical stress, electrodes underwent a controlled 180° folding, pressing, and unfolding protocol designed to induce measurable damage, we then employed a combination of characterization techniques, including synchrotron X-ray nano-computed tomography, X-ray diffraction mapping, electrochemical analysis, and in situ Tensiometer-scanning electron microscopy to assess both structural and electrochemical degradation modes and provide a standardised upper-bound for strain induced damage. Our results reveal that electrospun electrodes exhibit significantly greater resilience to deformation, attributed to their freestanding architecture and fibrous morphology. These findings underscore the importance of characterizing deformation mechanisms to guide the design of high-performance batteries.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Chang, J., Huang, Q., Gao, Y. & Zheng, Z. Pathways of developing high-energy-density flexible lithium batteries. Adv. Mater. 33, 2004419 (2021).
Wang, S. et al. Deformable lithium-ion batteries for wearable and implantable electronics. Appl. Phys. Rev. 9 https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0117252 (2022).
Zhou, G., Li, F. & Cheng, H.-M. Progress in flexible lithium batteries and future prospects. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 1307–1338 (2014).
Kong, L., Tang, C., Peng, H.-J., Huang, J.-Q. & Zhang, Q. Advanced energy materials for flexible batteries in energy storage: A review. SmartMat 1 https://doi.org/10.1002/smm2.1007 (2020).
Cha, H., Kim, J., Lee, Y., Cho, J. & Park, M. Issues and challenges facing flexible lithium-ion batteries for practical application. Small 14, 1702989 (2018).
Harks, P.-P. R. M. L. et al. Immersion precipitation route towards high performance thick and flexible electrodes for Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 441, 227200 (2019).
Waldmann, T., Scurtu, R.-G., Richter, K. & Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, M. 18650 vs. 21700 Li-ion cells – A direct comparison of electrochemical, thermal, and geometrical properties. J. Power Sources 472, 228614 (2020).
Schilling, A., Schmitt, J., Dietrich, F. & Dröder, K. Analyzing bending stresses on lithium-ion battery cathodes induced by the assembly process. Energy Technol. 4, 1502–1508 (2016).
Kok, M. D. R. et al. Virtual unrolling of spirally-wound lithium-ion cells for correlative degradation studies and predictive fault detection. Sustain. Energy Fuels 3, 2972–2976 (2019).
Pfrang, A. et al. Geometrical inhomogeneities as cause of mechanical failure in commercial 18650 lithium ion cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 166, A3745 (2019).
Gelam, S. D., Maddipatla, S., Chicone, C. & Pecht, M. Core collapse in cylindrical Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 623, 235471 (2024).
Cui, Y. Silicon anodes. Nat. Energy 6, 995–996 (2021).
Gelb, J., Finegan, D. P., Brett, D. J. L. & Shearing, P. R. Multi-scale 3D investigations of a commercial 18650 Li-ion battery with correlative electron- and X-ray microscopy. J. Power Sources 357, 77–86 (2017).
Gaikwad, A. M. et al. A high areal capacity flexible lithium-ion battery with a strain-compliant design. Adv. Energy Mater. 5, 1401389 (2015).
Wei, D. et al. Ultra-flexible and foldable gel polymer lithium–ion batteries enabling scalable production. Mater. Today Energy 23, 100889 (2022).
Hu, L., Wu, H., La Mantia, F., Yang, Y. & Cui, Y. Thin, flexible secondary li-ion paper batteries. ACS Nano 4, 5843–5848 (2010).
Zhu, T. et al. Formation of hierarchically ordered structures in conductive polymers to enhance the performances of lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Energy 8, 129–137 (2023).
Zhang, H., Yang, J., Hou, H., Chen, S. & Yao, H. Nitrogen-doped carbon paper with 3D porous structure as a flexible free-standing anode for lithium-ion batteries. Sci. Rep. 7, 7769 (2017).
Ahmad, S., Copic, D., George, C. & De Volder, M. Hierarchical Assemblies of Carbon Nanotubes for Ultraflexible Li-Ion Batteries. Adv. Mater. 28, 6705–6710 (2016).
Hu, L. et al. Silicon-conductive nanopaper for Li-ion batteries. Nano Energy 2, 138–145 (2013).
Wang, Y. et al. Spider silk-inspired binder design for flexible lithium-ion battery with high durability. Adv. Mater. 35, 2303165 (2023).
Xu, G. et al. A high-energy 5 V-class flexible lithium-ion battery endowed by laser-drilled flexible integrated graphite film. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 9468–9477 (2020).
Han, D.-Y. et al. Hierarchical 3D electrode design with high mass loading enabling high-energy-density flexible lithium-ion batteries. Small 19, 2305416 (2023).
Kang, S. et al. Stretchable lithium-ion battery based on re-entrant micro-honeycomb electrodes and cross-linked gel electrolyte. ACS Nano 14, 3660–3668 (2020).
Pushparaj, R. I. et al. Electrospun flexible nanofibres for batteries: Design and application. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-022-00148-4 (2023).
Ilango, P. R. et al. Electrospun flexible nanofibres for batteries: Design and application. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 6, 12 (2023).
Yan, Y., Liu, X., Yan, J., Guan, C. & Wang, J. Electrospun nanofibers for new generation flexible energy storage. Energy Environ. Mater. 4, 502–521 (2021).
Qian, G. et al. Designing flexible lithium-ion batteries by structural engineering. ACS Energy Lett. 4, 690–701 (2019).
Suo, Z., Ma, E. Y., Gleskova, H. & Wagner, S. Mechanics of rollable and foldable film-on-foil electronics. Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 1177–1179 (1999).
Chang, J., Huang, Q. & Zheng, Z. A figure of merit for flexible batteries. Joule 4, 1346–1349 (2020).
Chen, C. et al. Microspherical LiFePO3.98F0.02/3DG/C as an advanced cathode material for high-energy lithium-ion battery with a superior rate capability and long-term cyclability. Ionics 27, 1–11 (2021).
<Yu_2007_J._Electrochem._Soc._154_A253.pdf>. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2434687 兴.
Singh, G. K., Ceder, G. & Bazant, M. Z. Intercalation dynamics in rechargeable battery materials: General theory and phase-transformation waves in LiFePO4. Electrochim. Acta 53, 7599–7613 (2008).
Robinson, W. H. & Truman, S. D. Stress-strain curve for aluminium from a continuous indentation test. J. Mater. Sci. 12, 1961–1965 (1977).
Lee, N. S. et al. Anisotropic tensile ductility of cold-rolled and annealed aluminum alloy sheet and the beneficial effect of post-anneal rolling. Scr. Mater. 60, 340–343 (2009).
Ewaldz, E., Patel, R., Banerjee, M. & Brettmann, B. K. Material selection in electrospinning microparticles. Polymer 153, 529–537 (2018).
Liu, X. et al. In-situ fabrication of carbon-metal fabrics as freestanding electrodes for high-performance flexible energy storage devices. Energy Storage Mater. 30, 329–336 (2020).
Boll, F. et al. Assessing the effect of stabilization and carbonization temperatures on electrochemical performance of electrospun carbon nanofibers from polyacrylonitrile. Adv. Energy Sustainability Res. 4, 2300121 (2023).
Yi, S. et al. Effects of carbonization temperature on structure and mechanical strength of electrospun carbon nanofibrous mats. Mater. Lett. 273, 127962 (2020).
Ahsan, Z. et al. Recent progress in capacity enhancement of LiFePO4 cathode for li-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Energy Conv. Storage 18 https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4047222 (2020).
Cai, M. et al. Recent advances in synthesis and modification of phosphate-based cathode materials. J. Energy Storage 95, 112511 (2024).
Li, W. et al. Synchrotron-based X-ray absorption fine structures, X-ray Diffraction, and X-ray microscopy techniques applied in the study of lithium secondary batteries. Small Methods 2, 1700341 (2018).
Deng, Z. et al. Recent progress on advanced imaging techniques for lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 11, 2000806 (2021).
Coelho, A. TOPAS and TOPAS-academic: An optimization program integrating computer algebra and crystallographic objects written in C++. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 51, 210–218 (2018).
Acknowledgements
C.G. acknowledges the Royal Society for URF funding (UF160573). We acknowledge the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) for provision of synchrotron radiation facilities under proposal ma6063. The DOI for the ESRF measurements is https://doi.org/10.15151/ESRF-ES-1614593162. We thank Diamond Light Source for access to beamline I12 (MG36699) that contributed to the results presented here. AV acknowledges financial support from the Royal Society as a Royal Society Industry Fellow (IF\R2\222059).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
S.R and C.G: conceptualization, writing, and revision, AV: helped and performed the beamline I12 and ID11 experiments; process of the synchrotron data. G.Q: performed SEM tensiometer testing. J.M.: assisted with synchrotron experiments. M.O.: Assistance with electrospinning setup and process. A.S., N.B., B.W.: Revision and advice. K.H: Assistance with TGA measurements. P.O.A: assistance with ID11 proposal instrumentation and setup at the ESRF (European Synchrotron Radiation Facility). S.M. and G.B.: assistance with I12, proposal, instrumentation, and setup at the DLS (Diamond Light Source). All authors: revision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Communications Materials thanks Amit Chanda and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Riley, S., Vamvakeros, A., Quino, G. et al. Acute deformation characteristics of standard and flexible lithium-ion battery electrodes. Commun Mater (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43246-025-01064-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43246-025-01064-y
