Fig. 4: Synthesis of palaeoenvironmental trends inferred from deep-sea cores and faunal assemblages.

A Relative abundance of key pollen taxa (Podocarpaceae and Cyperaceae) from marine core MD96-2048 (eastern margin), serving as indicators of forest expansion and wetland development, respectively; B Pollen records from sites near MD96-2048 interpreted as reflecting dominance of wet or dry conditions during the periods of the pollen zones identified; C Large mammal trends from archaeological sites near MD96-2048, interpreted as reflecting dominance of browsing versus grazing taxa; D Small mammal-based habitat reconstructions from Border Cave using the Habitat Weighting Method, indicating proportions of grassland, woodland/shrubland, and wetland environments; E Pollen records from sites near MD96-2098 interpreted as reflecting dominance of wet or dry conditions during the periods of the pollen zones identified. F Poaceae pollen percentages from marine core MD96-2098 (western margin), interpreted as a proxy for the extent of open, grassy vegetation; G Large mammal trends from sites near MD96-2098, reflecting relative proportions of grazers and browsers; H Small mammal habitat trends from Klasies River and Blombos, indicating vegetation openness, substrate conditions, and proportions of moist vs. dry grasses. Yellow arrows indicate increasing trends; red arrows indicate declining trends. Chronological subdivisions follow Marine Isotope Stages (MIS). Together, these data highlight spatial and temporal variation in vegetation structure and rainfall regimes across South Africa during the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene (data used is presented in Supplementary Data 2).