Fig. 3: The localization results of Chang’E-3, Chang’E-4, and Chang’E-5 are presented from top to bottom, showing the global-to-local localization results and the ground truth.

The row a the landing site on the lunar DEM model and the model is available from LROC quick-map website (https://quickmap.lroc.asu.edu). The row b–d Chang’E landing zone on LROC DOM. The red cross is the fine landing site positioning result, the blue cross is the coarse landing site positioning result and the red circle in d is the true lander position, which is characterized with bright light. CE3, CE4, and CE5 are short for Chang’E-3, Chang’E-4 and Chang’E-5.