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Electrophoretic deposition

Nature Reviews Methods Primers volume 6, Article number: 12 (2026) Cite this article

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Abstract

Electrophoretic deposition (EPD) is continuously evolving, transitioning from a method for applying macroscale coatings to a versatile platform for micropatterning and even single-particle manipulation. This evolution is driven by convergence with nanotechnology and precision manufacturing, enabling unprecedented control over the assembly of micromaterials and nanomaterials. This Primer elucidates the fundamental principles underpinning both macro-EPD and micro-EPD and discusses the interplay among suspension properties, kinetic parameters and deposition mechanisms that govern film composition, architecture and functionality. Innovative methodologies in electrode design and field modulation are highlighted, which achieve high-resolution patterning and multimaterial integration for emerging applications. The versatility of EPD renders it suitable for diverse applications, spanning protective coatings, energy, optoelectronics and biomedical areas. Finally, by analysing current limitations and optimization strategies, we offer insights into potential future directions for EPD development.

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Fig. 1: Fundamental principles of electrophoretic deposition.
Fig. 2: Examples of typical electrophoretic deposition experimental process and set-up.
Fig. 3: Factors affecting electrophoretic deposition.
Fig. 4: Co-deposition strategies for electrophoretic deposition.
Fig. 5: Electrophoretic deposition patterning.
Fig. 6: Applications of electrophoretic deposition-derived materials and devices in energy storage and conversion and optoelectronics.
Fig. 7: Applications of electrophoretic deposition in sensor, wastewater treatment and biomedical fields.
Fig. 8: Outlook of electrophoretic deposition.

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Acknowledgements

This work was partly supported by grants from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (no. 2022YFB3602903), Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Advanced Quantum Dot Displays and Lighting (no. ZDSYS201707281632549), Shenzhen Science and Technology Program (nos JCYJ20220818100411025 and 20231128135041001), National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 62404091) and SUSTech High level of special funds (no. G03034K002). R.A. acknowledges the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for a fellowship. Large Language Model, namely, DeepSeek, was used for copyediting purposes in initial drafts.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Nanoscience and Applications, and Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China

    Jinyang Zhao, Lixuan Chen, Kai Wang & Xiao Wei Sun

  2. College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China

    Wenbo Liu

  3. Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

    Rezvan Azari & Aldo R. Boccaccini

Authors
  1. Jinyang Zhao
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  2. Wenbo Liu
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  3. Rezvan Azari
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  4. Lixuan Chen
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  5. Kai Wang
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  6. Aldo R. Boccaccini
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  7. Xiao Wei Sun
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Contributions

Introduction (J.Z. and X.W.S.); Experimentation (J.Z., R.A., A.R.B. and X.W.S.); Results (J.Z., R.A., A.R.B. and X.W.S.); Applications (W.L., J.Z., R.A., A.R.B. and X.W.S.); Reproducibility and data deposition (J.Z., L.C., R.A., A.R.B. and K.W.); Limitations and optimizations (J.Z., R.A., A.R.B. and L.C.); Outlook (J.Z., W.L., R.A., A.R.B., K.W. and X.W.S.); overview of the Primer (all authors).

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Correspondence to Xiao Wei Sun.

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Nature Reviews Methods Primers thanks Tetsuo Uchikoshi, Omer O. Van Der Biest and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Glossary

Coffee-ring effects

A common issue in drying droplet techniques (for example, inkjet printing) in which non-uniform material accumulation occurs at the edge due to capillary flow.

Debye length

A measure of the thickness of the diffuse part of the electrical double layer, indicating the distance over which electric charges in electrolytes are screened by surrounding charges. This length controls the range of the double layer interaction, which is crucial for colloidal stability and flocculation.

Design of experiments

(DOE). A systematic, statistically based methodology used to efficiently plan, conduct, analyse and interpret controlled tests for the purpose of investigating and optimizing the electrophoretic deposition process. Instead of varying one factor at a time, DOE involves deliberately changing multiple input variables (factors) simultaneously according to a predefined matrix or ‘design’ to study their individual and joint effects on the deposition outcome.

Dielectrophoresis

The motion of particles (charged or uncharged) in non-homogeneous electric fields owing to induced dipole is distinct from electrophoretic motion.

EDL distortion and thinning

Under the action of electric field and fluid dynamics, the electrical double layer (EDL) of the particle is distorted (thinner in front and broader behind), which causes the counter-ions to react more easily with other ions, thus thinning the EDL. This thinning enables particles to approach closely enough for van der Waals forces to cause coagulation.

Electrochemical particle coagulation

Electrochemical reactions cause a localized increase in electrolyte concentration and ionic strength near the electrode. This increase suppresses the repulsion forces between particles (decrease in zeta potential), leading to coagulation and deposition. This mechanism applies to aqueous systems in which reactions (for example, water electrolysis) generate ions (such as OH–).

Electrochemical polymerization

An electrochemical deposition process in which monomers are oxidized or reduced to form polymer films on an electrode surface; distinct from electrophoretic deposition.

Electroplating

An electrochemical deposition technique in which metal ions are reduced to form a metallic coating on a conductive substrate.

Green density

The density and physical state of a material deposit (coating, film and object) after lectrophoretic deposition but before any sintering or high-temperature densification.

High-volume-fraction zone

A region of substantially elevated particle concentration that forms adjacent to the deposition electrode during electrophoretic deposition.

Lithiation and delithiation

The electrochemical insertion (lithiation) and extraction (delithiation) of lithium ions into or from an electrode material, the fundamental charge and discharge process in lithium-ion batteries.

Micro-arc oxidation

(MAO). High-voltage anodization creates plasma discharges that form a modified ceramic coating (mainly composed of metal oxides and electrolyte components) on metals. Combined with electrophoretic deposition, this forms a dense composite film layer that solves the issues of loose, porous surfaces and poor corrosion resistance.

MXenes

2D materials with the formula Mn+1XnTx, in which M represents an early transition metal, X is carbon or nitrogen and Tx denotes surface terminations on the outermost exposed M layers.

Particle accumulation-flocculation

Under the influence of an electric field, particles accumulate at the electrode surface. Deposition occurs as incoming particles exert pressure on those near the electrode, overcoming interparticle repulsive forces and triggering flocculation. This mechanism is also applicable to deposition onto non-electrode surfaces.

Particle charge neutralization

The charge on a particle is neutralized upon contact with the conductive electrode (or the existing deposit), causing deposition owing to the loss of electrostatic stabilization. This model is suitable for single-particle or single-layer deposition, especially in systems in which salts are added to enhance the particle charge.

Slipping plane

The slipping plane is the hypothetical boundary that separates the inner part of this double layer (which moves with the particle) from the bulk liquid (which moves past the particle). It is located at a very small but finite distance from the particle surface, just outside the Stern layer.

Thin film transistor

(TFT). A type of field-effect transistor with active semiconductor and dielectric layers deposited on substrates, commonly used in displays to control individual pixels.

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Zhao, J., Liu, W., Azari, R. et al. Electrophoretic deposition. Nat Rev Methods Primers 6, 12 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-025-00462-3

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