Fig. 2: Body grid prototype and outdoor EMS test.

a Front and side views of the body grid prototype and main devices. b Connection diagram. c Need-oriented EMS. d SOCs variation of batteries over time in the outdoor test without body grid and PV power. e SOCs variation in the outdoor test with body grid. f 8 EMSs automatically switch during the test. g Interactive interface using a cellphone. h Demand response operation, and SOC-hours curve. i Transfer switch operation, SOC-hours curve. j Renewable energy utilization operation, the SOC-hours curve. The dotted line represents the original SOC trend without customization. EMS energy management strategy, SOC state of charge, PV photovoltaic. Experimental data are provided in Supplementary Data 1.