Fig. 2: Actuator based on engineered skeletal muscle. | npj Robotics

Fig. 2: Actuator based on engineered skeletal muscle.

From: Biohybrid actuators in robotics: recent trends and future perspectives of skeletal and cardiac muscle integration

Fig. 2: Actuator based on engineered skeletal muscle.The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.

a Electrical stimulation culture system for daily maintenance-free muscle tissue production (scale bar, 10 mm). Adapted with permission from ref. 81, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. AAAS: Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0). b Biohybrid robot powered by an antagonistic pair of skeletal muscle tissues [scale bars = 5 mm (left), 2 mm (right)], adapted with permission from ref. 11, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. c Three-dimensional printed biological machines powered by skeletal muscles (scale bar = 1 mm). Adapted with permission from ref. 35, PNAS. d Multi-actuator light-controlled biological robots [scale bars = 1 mm (left) and 2 mm (right)]. Adapted with permission from ref. 85. AIP Publishing, Creative Commons and CC. e Neuromuscular actuation of the biohybrid motile bots (scale bar = 250 µm). Adapted with permission from ref. 8. PNAS, Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivatives License 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND). f Force Modulation and Adaptability of 3D-Bioprinted Biological Actuators Based on Skeletal Muscle Tissue (scale bar = 100 µm). Adapted with permission from ref. 112, John Wiley and Sons.

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