Fig. 4: Actuators of biohybrid swimming robots.
a Medusoids engineered to exhibit jellyfish-like stroke kinetics (scale bar = 1 mm). Adapted with permission from ref. 7, Springer Nature. b Phototactic steering of the tissue-engineered ray through an obstacle course [scale bar = 20 (left top), 2 mm (left bottom), 500 µm (middle), and 50 µm (right)]. Adapted with permission from ref. 58, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. c Bright-field images of swimmers after release from the anchors. The neurosphere is dislocated from its original seeding location owing to tension generated between the muscle and neurons [scale bar = 500 µm (left), 250 µm (right)]. Adapted with permission from ref. 8, PNAS, Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivatives License 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND). d Biohybrid soft robots with self-stimulating skeletons [scale bar = 100 µm (left), 3 mm (middle), 10 mm (right)]. Adapted with permission from ref. 9, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. e Autonomous BCF propulsion of a biohybrid fish designed using human cardiac biophysics (scale bar = 5 mm). Adapted with permission from ref. 6, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. f Free-floating ray during diastole and systole [scale bar = 20 µm (left), 500 µm (right)]. Adapted with permission from ref. 54, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.
