Fig. 5: Batoid-inspired robots also use various electrically driven actuators composed of two electrodes that sandwich another material. | npj Robotics

Fig. 5: Batoid-inspired robots also use various electrically driven actuators composed of two electrodes that sandwich another material.

From: Ray-inspired robots: recent advances in actuation and control

Fig. 5

a pre-stretched DEA actuators86, b tube DEA actuators89, c IPMC actuators125, and d HASEL actuators24. Many of these actuators operate at a similar scale of 5–15 cm in length and achieve simple oscillatory locomotion.

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