Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Perspective
  • Published:

Rumination reconsidered: a dynamic interpersonal model

Nature Mental Health volume 4, pages 499–507 (2026)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Rumination is a core transdiagnostic factor underlying mental health, traditionally conceptualized as a maladaptive intrapersonal habit. However, rumination is deeply embedded in people’s relationships. Here we propose the Dynamic Interpersonal Model of Rumination (DIM-Rum), repositioning rumination as a recursive interpersonal, dynamic process. We start by outlining the traditional approach to rumination, and then integrate findings from diverse research areas to show how rumination is continuously shaped by and shaping the interpersonal world. Next, we present DIM-Rum, which complements and extends existing intrapersonal models by explicitly incorporating dynamic interpersonal feedback loops. We suggest implications and future directions that require the expansion of current methods and collaborations. By considering rumination in its interpersonal context, DIM-Rum offers novel targets for research and intervention.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Rumination as embedded in a social context.
Fig. 2: DIM-Rum.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Watkins, E. R. & Roberts, H. Reflecting on rumination: consequences, causes, mechanisms and treatment of rumination. Behav. Res. Ther. 127, 103573 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Whisman, M. A., du Pont, A. & Butterworth, P. Longitudinal associations between rumination and depressive symptoms in a probability sample of adults. J. Affect. Disord. 260, 680–686 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Ehring, T., Fuchs, N. & Kläsener, I. The effects of experimentally induced rumination versus distraction on analogue posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behav. Ther. 40, 403–413 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Zetsche, U., Ehring, T. & Ehlers, A. The effects of rumination on mood and intrusive memories after exposure to traumatic material: an experimental study. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 40, 499–514 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Thomsen, D. K. The association between rumination and negative affect: a review. Cogn. Emot. 20, 1216–1235 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Ehring, T. & Watkins, E. Repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process. Int. J. Cogn. Ther. 1, 192–205 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. McLaughlin, K. A. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety. Behav. Res. Ther. 49, 186–193 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. McCarrick, D., Prestwich, A., Prudenzi, A. & O’Connor, D. B. Health effects of psychological interventions for worry and rumination: a meta-analysis. Health Psychol. 40, 617–630 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Perestelo-Perez, L., Barraca, J., Peñate, W., Rivero-Santana, A. & Alvarez-Perez, Y. Mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of depressive rumination: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol. 17, 282–295 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Spinhoven, P. et al. The effects of cognitive-behavior therapy for depression on repetitive negative thinking: a meta-analysis. Behav. Res. Ther. 106, 71–85 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. in Depressive Rumination: Nature, Theory and Treatment (eds Papageorgiou, C. & Wells, A.) 105–123 (Wiley, 2003).

  12. Watkins, E. R. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. A habit-goal framework of depressive rumination. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123, 24–34 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Tamm, G., Koster, E. H. W. & Hoorelbeke, K. Multiple paths to rumination within a network analytical framework. Sci. Rep. 14, 10874 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Ellemers, N., Spears, R. & Doosje, B. Self and social identity. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53, 161–186 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K. & Downs, D. L. Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: the sociometer hypothesis. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 68, 518–530 (1995).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol. Bull. 117, 497–529 (1995).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Almeida, D. M., Wethington, E. & Kessler, R. C. The daily inventory of stressful events: an interview-based approach for measuring daily stressors. Assessment 9, 41–55 (2002).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Bolger, N., DeLongis, A., Kessler, R. C. & Schilling, E. A. Effects of daily stress on negative mood. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 57, 808–818 (1989).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Felton, J. W., Cole, D. A., Havewala, M., Kurdziel, G. & Brown, V. Talking together, thinking alone: relations among co-rumination, peer relationships and rumination. J. Youth Adolesc. 48, 731–743 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Ruscio, A. M. et al. Rumination predicts heightened responding to stressful life events in major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 124, 17–26 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E. & Lyubomirsky, S. Rethinking rumination. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 3, 400–424 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. Rumination reconsidered: a psychometric analysis. Cogn. Ther. Res. 27, 247–259 (2003).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Watkins, E. R. Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychol. Bull. 134, 163–206 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Gaté, M. A. et al. Maternal parenting behaviors and adolescent depression: the mediating role of rumination. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 42, 348–357 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sachs-Ericsson, N. et al. Transmission of parental neuroticism to offspring’s depression: the mediating role of rumination. Personal Ment. Health 8, 306–319 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Spasojevic, J. & Alloy, L. B. Who becomes a depressive ruminator? Developmental antecedents of ruminative response style. J. Cogn. Psychother. 16, 405–419 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Cortés-García, L., Takkouche, B., Rodriguez-Cano, R. & Senra, C. Mediational mechanisms involved in the relation between attachment insecurity and depression: a meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 277, 706–726 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Abramson, L. Y. & Alloy, L. B. Stress and the development of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression explain sex differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 3, 702–714 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pearson, K. A., Watkins, E. R. & Mullan, E. G. Rejection sensitivity prospectively predicts increased rumination. Behav. Res. Ther. 49, 597–605 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Downey, G. & Feldman, S. I. Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 70, 1327–1343 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Mikulincer, M. & Shaver, P. R. Attachment theory and emotions in close relationships: exploring the attachment-related dynamics of emotional reactions to relational events. Pers. Relatsh. 12, 149–168 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. del Palacio-González, A., Clark, D. A. & O’Sullivan, L. F. Cognitive processing in the aftermath of relationship dissolution: associations with concurrent and prospective distress and posttraumatic growth. Stress Health 33, 540–548 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Eisma, M. C. & Stroebe, M. S. Emotion regulatory strategies in complicated grief: a systematic review. Behav. Ther. 52, 234–249 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Tester-Jones, M., Moberly, N. J., Karl, A. & O’Mahen, H. Daily relationships among maternal rumination, mood and bonding with infant. Behav. Res. Ther. 165, 104309 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Puterman, E., DeLongis, A. & Pomaki, G. Protecting us from ourselves: social support as a buffer of trait and state rumination. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 29, 797–820 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Lyubomirsky, S. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 65, 339–349 (1993).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Pearson, K. A., Watkins, E. R., Mullan, E. G. & Moberly, N. J. Psychosocial correlates of depressive rumination. Behav. Res. Ther. 48, 784–791 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. & Morrow, J. A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 61, 115–121 (1991).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Jostmann, N. B., Karremans, J. & Finkenauer, C. When love is not blind: rumination impairs implicit affect regulation in response to romantic relationship threat. Cogn. Emot. 25, 506–518 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. McCullough, M. E., Bono, G. & Root, L. M. Rumination, emotion and forgiveness: three longitudinal studies. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 92, 490–505 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Elphinston, R. A., Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., Connor, J. P. & Fitzgerald, J. Romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction: the costs of rumination. West. J. Commun. 77, 293–304 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Pearson, K. A., Watkins, E. R., Kuyken, W. & Mullan, E. G. The psychosocial context of depressive rumination: ruminative brooding predicts diminished relationship satisfaction in individuals with a history of past major depression. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 49, 275–280 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. O’Mahen, H. A., Boyd, A. & Gashe, C. Rumination decreases parental problem-solving effectiveness in dysphoric postnatal mothers. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 47, 18–24 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Müller, D., Teismann, T., Havemann, B., Michalak, J. & Seehagen, S. Ruminative thinking as a predictor of perceived postpartum mother-infant bonding. Cogn. Ther. Res. 37, 89–96 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Schmidt, D., Seehagen, S., Vocks, S., Schneider, S. & Teismann, T. Predictive importance of antenatal depressive rumination and worrying for maternal-foetal attachment and maternal well-being. Cogn. Ther. Res. 40, 565–576 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. McLaughlin, K. A. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. Interpersonal stress generation as a mechanism linking rumination to internalizing symptoms in early adolescents. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 41, 584–597 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Shapero, B. G., Hamilton, J. L., Liu, R. T., Abramson, L. Y. & Alloy, L. B. Internalizing symptoms and rumination: the prospective prediction of familial and peer emotional victimization experiences during adolescence. J. Adolesc. 36, 1067–1076 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Rose, A. J. Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Dev. 73, 1830–1843 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Rose, A. J. The costs and benefits of co-rumination. Child Dev. Perspect. 15, 176–181 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Tudder, A., Wilkinson, M., Gresham, A. M. & Peters, B. J. The intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of a new experimental manipulation of co-rumination. Emotion 23, 1190–1201 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Tudder, A., Lemay, E. P. & Peters, B. J. ‘Let’s go over it again’: examining the intra- and interpersonal processes that perpetuate co-rumination in close relationships. Emotion 24, 769–781 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. DiGiovanni, A. M., Cornelius, T. & Bolger, N. Decomposing variance in co-rumination using dyadic daily diary data. Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci. 14, 636–646 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. DiGiovanni, A. M., Peters, B. J., Tudder, A., Gresham, A. M. & Bolger, N. Physiological synchrony in supportive discussions: an examination of co-rumination, relationship type and heterogeneity. Psychophysiology 61, e14554 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Jose, P. E., Wilkins, H. & Spendelow, J. S. Does social anxiety predict rumination and co-rumination among adolescents?. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 41, 86–91 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Stone, L. B. & Gibb, B. E. Brief report: preliminary evidence that co-rumination fosters adolescents’ depression risk by increasing rumination. J. Adolesc. 38, 1–4 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L. & Gross, J. J. Emotion regulation and culture: are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion 7, 30–48 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Fischer, A. H., Rodriguez Mosquera, P. M., Van Vianen, A. E. M. & Manstead, A. S. R. Gender and culture differences in emotion. Emotion 4, 87–94 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S. in College Student Development and Academic Life (eds Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, S.) 264–294 (Routledge, 1998).

  59. Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H. & Nakagawa, S. Culture, emotion regulation and adjustment. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 94, 925–937 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. McGuirk, L., Kuppens, P., Kingston, R. & Bastian, B. Does a culture of happiness increase rumination over failure? Emotion 18, 755–764 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Cox, S., Mezulis, A. & Hyde, J. The influence of child gender role and maternal feedback to child stress on the emergence of the gender difference in depressive rumination in adolescence. Dev. Psychol. 46, 842–852 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Johnson, D. P. & Whisman, M. A. Gender differences in rumination: a meta-analysis. Pers. Individ. Dif. 55, 367–374 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Borders, A. & Liang, C. T. H. Rumination partially mediates the associations between perceived ethnic discrimination, emotional distress and aggression. Cultur. Divers. Ethnic Minor. Psychol. 17, 125–133 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Sarno, E. L., Newcomb, M. E. & Mustanski, B. Rumination longitudinally mediates the association of minority stress and depression in sexual and gender minority individuals. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 129, 355–363 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Chang, E. C., Tsai, W. & Sanna, L. J. Examining the relations between rumination and adjustment: do ethnic differences exist between Asian and European Americans?. Asian Am. J. Psychol. 1, 46–56 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Overall, N. C. & Simpson, J. A. Attachment and dyadic regulation processes. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 1, 61–66 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Coyne, J. C. Depression and the response of others. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 85, 186–193 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Joiner, T., Coyne, J. C. & Blalock, J. in The Interactional Nature of Depression: Advances in Interpersonal Approaches (eds Joiner, T. & Coyne, J. C.) 3–19 (American Psychological Association, 1999).

  69. Reis, H. & Shaver, P. Intimacy as an interpersonal process. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 74, 1238–1251 (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  70. Reis, H. T. & Gable, S. L. Responsiveness. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 1, 67–71 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Zee, K. S. & Bolger, N. Visible and invisible social support: how, why and when. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28, 314–320 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Zaki, J. & Williams, W. C. Interpersonal emotion regulation. Emotion 13, 803–810 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. DeJong, H., Fox, E. & Stein, A. Rumination and postnatal depression: a systematic review and a cognitive model. Behav. Res. Ther. 82, 38–49 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Stein, A., Lehtonen, A., Harvey, A. G., Nicol-Harper, R. & Craske, M. The influence of postnatal psychiatric disorder on child development. Psychopathology 42, 11–21 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Mishra, M. & Allen, M. S. Rejection sensitivity and romantic relationships: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pers. Individ. Dif. 208, 112186 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Fletcher, G. J. & Fincham, F. D. in Cognition In Close Relationships (eds Fletcher, G. J. & Fincham, F. D.) 7–35 (Psychology Press, 2013).

  77. Schoellbauer, J., Tement, S. & Korunka, C. Honey, there´s something on my mind… adverse consequences of negative and positive work rumination on attention to the partner, and the advantage of talking about it. J. Happiness Stud. 24, 917–944 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Pauw, L. S., Sauter, D. A., van Kleef, G. A. & Fischer, A. H. Sense or sensibility? Social sharers’ evaluations of socio-affective vs. cognitive support in response to negative emotions. Cogn. Emot. 32, 1247–1264 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Ruan, Y., Le, J. D. V. & Reis, H. T. How can I help?: specific strategies used in interpersonal emotion regulation in a relationship context. Emotion 24, 329–344 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Horn, A. B. & Maercker, A. Intra- and interpersonal emotion regulation and adjustment symptoms in couples: the role of co-brooding and co-reappraisal. BMC Psychol. 4, 51 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. MacCann, C. et al. What do we do to help others feel better? Eight extrinsic emotion regulation processes linked to affective and interpersonal outcomes. Emotion 25, 410–429 (2025).

  82. Beckes, L. & Coan, J. A. Social baseline theory: the role of social proximity in emotion and economy of action. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 5, 976–988 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Alho, J. et al. Transmission of mental disorders in adolescent peer networks. JAMA Psychiatry 81, 882–888 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Fredriksen, E., von Soest, T., Smith, L. & Moe, V. Depressive symptom contagion in the transition to parenthood: interparental processes and the role of partner-related attachment. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 128, 397–403 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Joiner, T. E. Jr& Katz, J. Contagion of depressive symptoms and mood: meta-analytic review and explanations from cognitive, behavioral and interpersonal viewpoints. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 6, 149–164 (1999).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Thompson, A. & Bolger, N. Emotional transmission in couples under stress. J. Marriage Fam. 61, 38–48 (1999).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Waters, S. F., West, T. V. & Mendes, W. B. Stress contagion: physiological covariation between mothers and infants. Psychol. Sci. 25, 934–942 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Kleef van, G. A. & Côté, S. The social effects of emotions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 73, 629–658 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Marroquín, B. Interpersonal emotion regulation as a mechanism of social support in depression. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31, 1276–1290 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Pietromonaco, P. R. & Collins, N. L. Interpersonal mechanisms linking close relationships to health. Am. Psychol. 72, 531–542 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. Frijda, N. H. & Mesquita, B. in Emotion and Culture: Empirical Studies of Mutual Influence (eds Kitayama, S. & Markus, H. R.) 51–87 (American Psychological Association, 1994).

  92. Mcguire, L. & Kiecolt-Glaser, K. Interpersonal pathways to health. Psychiatry 63, 136–139 (2000).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Uchino, B., Cacioppo, J. & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. The relationship between social support and physiological processes: a review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychol. Bull. 119, 488–531 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Pan, Y. & Cheng, X. Two-person approaches to studying social interaction in psychiatry: uses and clinical relevance. Front. Psychiatry 11, 301 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Reis, H. T., Sels, L. & Gable, S. L. in Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology (eds Reis, H. T. et al.) 266–296 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2024).

  96. Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A. & Cook, W. L. Dyadic Data Analysis (Guilford Publications, 2020).

  97. Laurenceau, J.-P. & Bolger, N. in Handbook of Research Methods for Studying Daily Life (eds Mehl, M. R. & Conner, T. S.) 407–422 (Guilford Press, 2012).

  98. Girme, Y. U., Overall, N. C. & Simpson, J. A. Introduction to the special issue: nonlinear effects and dynamics in close relationships. J. Soc. Pers. Relatsh. 39, 2991–3000 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Barbato, A. & D’Avanzo, B. Efficacy of couple therapy as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis. Psychiatr. Q. 79, 121–132 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Barbato, A. & D’Avanzo, B. The findings of a Cochrane meta-analysis of couple therapy in adult depression: implications for research and clinical practice. Fam. Process 59, 361–375 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Crowell, J. A. & Feldman, S. S. Mothers’ internal models of relationships and children’s behavioral and developmental status: a study of mother-child interaction. Child Dev. 59, 1273–1285 (1988).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Kwon, K.-A., Bingham, G., Lewsader, J., Jeon, H.-J. & Elicker, J. Structured task versus free play: the influence of social context on parenting quality, toddlers’ engagement with parents and play behaviors, and parent-toddler language use. Child Youth Care Forum 42, 207–224 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Gottman, J. M., Coan, J., Carrere, S. & Swanson, C. Predicting marital happiness and stability from newlywed interactions. J. Marriage Fam. 60, 5–22 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Waldinger, R. J. & Schulz, M. S. Linking hearts and minds in couple interactions: intentions, attributions and overriding sentiments. J. Fam. Psychol. 20, 494–504 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Pasch, L. A. & Bradbury, T. N. Social support, conflict and the development of marital dysfunction. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 66, 219–230 (1998).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Gable, S. L., Gonzaga, G. C. & Strachman, A. Will you be there for me when things go right? Supportive responses to positive event disclosures. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 91, 904–917 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Cohn, J. F. & Tronick, E. Z. Three-month-old infants’ reaction to simulated maternal depression. Child Dev. 54, 185–193 (1983).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Thorson, K. R., West, T. V. & Mendes, W. B. Measuring physiological influence in dyads: a guide to designing, implementing, and analyzing dyadic physiological studies. Psychol. Methods 23, 595–616 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Welsh, D. & Dickson, J. Video-recall procedures for examining subjective understanding in observational data. J. Fam. Psychol. 19, 62–71 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Driver, J. L. & Gottman, J. M. Daily marital interactions and positive affect during marital conflict among newlywed couples. Fam. Process 43, 301–314 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Aspland, H. & Gardner, F. Observational measures of parent-child interaction: an introductory review. Child Adolesc. Ment. Health 8, 136–143 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Coan, J. A. & Gottman, J. M. in Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment (eds Coan, J. A. & Allen, J. J. B.) 267–285 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2007).

  113. Johnson, M. D. The observation of specific affect in marital interactions: psychometric properties of a coding system and a rating system. Psychol. Assess. 14, 423–438 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Berli, C., Bolger, N., Shrout, P. E., Stadler, G. & Scholz, U. Interpersonal processes of couples’ daily support for goal pursuit: the example of physical activity. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 44, 332–344 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Saxbe, D. & Repetti, R. L. For better or worse? Coregulation of couples’ cortisol levels and mood states. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 98, 92–103 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Sun, J., Harris, K. & Vazire, S. Is well-being associated with the quantity and quality of social interactions? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 119, 1478–1496 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Kosinski, M., Matz, S. C., Gosling, S. D., Popov, V. & Stillwell, D. Facebook as a research tool for the social sciences: opportunities, challenges, ethical considerations and practical guidelines. Am. Psychol. 70, 543–556 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Finkel, E. J., Eastwick, P. W. & Matthews, J. Speed-dating as an invaluable tool for studying romantic attraction: a methodological primer. Pers. Relatsh 14, 149–166 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Bolger, N. & Laurenceau, J.-P. Intensive Longitudinal Methods: An Introduction to Diary and Experience Sampling Research (Guilford Press, 2013).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We sincerely thank H. Reis and F. Raes for their valuable feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript. L.S. is funded by an FWO senior postdoctoral fellow mandate (grant no. 12ZN523N), and K. Hoorelbeke is also supported by FWO (grant no. G0A2425N).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

    Laura Sels, Kristof Hoorelbeke & Ernst H. W. Koster

Authors
  1. Laura Sels
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kristof Hoorelbeke
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ernst H. W. Koster
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

L.S. provided conceptualization, visualization, program administration and wrote the original draft. K.H. reviewed and edited the paper and provided visualization. E.H.W.K. provided conceptualization and visualization, and reviewed and edited the paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Sels.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Mental Health thanks Monika Kornacka, Henrietta Roberts and Anne Maj van der Velden for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sels, L., Hoorelbeke, K. & Koster, E.H.W. Rumination reconsidered: a dynamic interpersonal model. Nat. Mental Health 4, 499–507 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-026-00618-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-026-00618-4

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing