Abstract
Single-atom catalysts (SACs) exhibit exceptional properties for wastewater treatment, yet their scalable and cost-effective synthesis remains a critical barrier to practical implementation. Here we report a cascade fixation self-assembly strategy for producing universal single- and dual-atom catalysts at the kilogram scale, achieving high metal loading (up to 14 wt%) while enabling ~100% selective generation of singlet oxygen for efficient antibiotic removal. The complete evolution of iron atoms during SAC synthesis and water treatment was elucidated through batch experiments, operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy and theoretical calculations, revealing near-complete utilization of the Fe source without compromising its structural integrity or catalytic activity. The stability and efficacy of Fe SACs produced at scale for antibiotic degradation was validated using a near-industrial continuous-flow reactor, with limited Fe leaching. This study establishes a practical platform for industrial-scale catalyst production while advancing the selective generation of reactive species and sustainable water purification.
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Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (no. 2021YFA1202700), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (nos. 22193060, U21A20163 and 22476177), the Key Research and Development Program of Zhejiang Province (no. 2025C02215), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (no. 226-2025-00048), the Postdoctoral Fellowship Program of CPSF (no. GZC20241473) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (no. 2024M752807). We gratefully acknowledge the staff of beamline BL5S1 at the Aichi Synchrotron Radiation Center (Japan) and assistance from the Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, beamlines BL11B (https://cstr.cn/31124.02.SSRF.BL11B) and BL08U1A (https://cstr.cn/31124.02.SSRF.BL08U1A), for XAS measurements.
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X.J. and J.X. designed the research; X.J., C.L., Y.C., J.C. and Q.Z. synthesized materials, performed experiments and analysed data; X.J. and Z.G. contributed advanced analytical tools and relevant analysis; X.J., D.L. and J.X. discussed the results and edited the paper; X.J., L.Z., D.L. and J.X. secured funding, provided analytical tools and commented on the paper; X.J. and J.X. supervised the entire project.
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Nature Water thanks Xiaoguang Duan, Jinxing Ma and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
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Supplementary Notes 1–5, Figs. 1–27 and Tables 1–17.
Source data
Source Data Fig. 1 (download XLSX )
XRD patterns of FeNP/CN, UV–visible spectra, XRD patterns and TG curves of gram- and kilogram-scale Fe supramolecules.
Source Data Fig. 2 (download XLSX )
EXAFS spectra in R space of M1/CN-kg (M = Co, Ni, Mn and Cu), Fe1Cu1/CN-kg and Fe1Ag1/CN-kg.
Source Data Fig. 3 (download XLSX )
The kper site of antibiotic degradation and EPR signals of distinct-scale Fe1/CNs/PMS systems. Comparison of scavenging experiments with various dosages of CO32− and NaNO2, and time-resolved EPR spectra of the Fe1/CN-kg/PMS system with different scavengers.
Source Data Fig. 4 (download XLSX )
Fe K-edge FT-EXAFS signals of supramolecules and Fe1/CNs at distinct scales. XANES and FT k3-weighted EXAFS spectra of the Fe1/CN-kg/PMS system during the operando XAS experiments.
Source Data Fig. 5 (download XLSX )
Removal efficiencies of COD and antibiotic levofloxacin during advanced treatment of sedimentation effluent. Levofloxacin removal efficiency and total Fe leaching of Fe1/CN-kg during continuous-flow treatment of sedimentation effluent. Removal efficiency of levofloxacin from five different wastewaters by the Fe1/CN-kg/PMS system. Efficiency of large-scale wastewater treatment (50 l).
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Jiang, X., Li, C., Chen, Y. et al. Universal scalable production of single-atom catalysts for antibiotic wastewater treatment. Nat Water 4, 206–216 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00561-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00561-1
