Fig. 4: Forest plot of unstandardized beta coefficients and 95% confidence intervals for the multilevel model effects of all videos on relevant sharing decisions and willingness to share relevant manipulative and non-manipulative content for the three respective manipulation tactics.

This shows that all of the long and short videos significantly increased relevant sharing decisions and willingness to share relevant non-manipulative content compared to the control group, while effects on willingness to share relevant manipulative content were mostly non-significant, the long scapegoating video significantly increased willingness to share manipulative scapegoating content, and the short discrediting video significantly increased willingness to share manipulative discrediting content compared to the control group. Note. N = 17,551 to 18,659. Positive effect sizes denote higher willingness to share manipulative and non-manipulative content, and higher willingness to share non-manipulative content relative to manipulative content for sharing decisions in the experimental conditions compared to the control group.