Table 1 Theoretical prediction of relevant constructs and collective action

Identification—the extent to which individuals feel psychologically connected with a group engaged in collective action

The stronger their social identification, the more likely people are to act in support of the group’s collective action goals (SIMCA, EMSICA, SIMPEA and MOBILISE).

Collective efficacy—the belief that collective action will be effective in achieving its goals

If individuals think their group can enact change, they are more likely to support activism (SIMCA, EMSICA, SIMPEA and MOBILISE). However, when people feel low efficacy, especially through failure, they become more willing to support radical action (DIME).

Moral conviction—the belief that the group’s cause is not just a preference but a matter of right and wrong

Moralisation of one’s beliefs about climate change predicts increased willingness to engage in collective action (SIMCA, EMSICA, SIMPEA and MOBILISE). Heightened moral conviction, especially under failure, can lead to more willingness to engage in radical collective action (DIME).

Anger—operationalised here in terms of the anger people feel when thinking about the current debates on climate change

Anger, mainly due to perceived injustice, predicts engagement in collective action (SIMCA, EMSICA, SIMPEA and MOBILISE).

Outgroup antipathy—operationalised here in terms of (low) empathy and (low) favourability toward opponents of climate change

Antipathy toward the outgroup is theorised to be associated with radical action (Becker and Tausch)⁷.

Norm of hostility—the extent to which other ingroup members are perceived to be hostile to the outgroup

Ingroup norms shape individual action when it comes to responding to climate change (SIMPEA)

Belief in climate change—the belief that climate change is real and caused by humans

Belief in anthropogenic climate change is a pre-requisite for engaging in collective efforts to mitigate emissions.

Political ideology—operationalised here in terms of the extent to where people self-identify, politically, on the spectrum of left-right

Left-wing political orientation is associated with more pro-climate attitudes and collective action intentions (AICAM and MOBILISE).

Collective victimhood—the tendency of groups to claim they have suffered more than an opposing group

Collective victimhood is analogous to perceived injustice and predicts collective action (SIMCA, EMSICA, SIMPEA and MOBILISE). However, movements that see themselves as virtuous and victimised may justify aggression toward perceived enemies and radical action.

State capture—the perception that powerful actors manipulate government and institutions to serve their interests over the public good

People turn to radical action when they feel the political system is rigged against them (Becker and Tausch)⁷.

Big 5 personality—the set of stable traits and behaviours that shape how individuals interact with their social environment

Personalities directly and indirectly affect engagement in collective action through group consciousness (MOBILISE; Zacher)⁴⁵.

Demographics—measured here as age, gender, and education

Demographic characteristics directly and indirectly affect collective action through group consciousness. For example, age and gender have been relevant in the past to predict collective action (MOBILISE).