Fig. 2: Instability in D-FFOCT images and the implementation of active phase modulation correction.

a Stitched D-FFOCT image of psammomatous meningioma with collagen fibers. b Averaged frequency spectra correspond to the selected regions in a. c Stitched D-FFOCT image with both collagen fibers and tumor cells (enlargement of the purple dotted box in a). d Averaged frequency spectra correspond to the selected solid boxes of collagen fibers and tumor cells in c. e Stitched APMD-FFOCT image of the same area in a. f-h Images generated by low-frequency part (0.4-24.8 Hz, green area of i) (f), active phase modulation part (24.8-25.2 Hz, blue area of i) (g), and the combination of f and g shown in h. i Averaged frequency spectra correspond to the collagen fibers and tumor cells in h. j–l APMD-FFOCT images with PZT modulation voltage amplitude of 0 nm(j), 23 nm (k) and 115 nm (l). m Frequency spectra of tumor cell areas in j-l with increasing PZT modulation voltage.