Fig. 12: Meta-heuristic optimization metasurface design methods.

a Large-scale parametrized metasurface design using adjoint optimization327. b Inverse design of metasurfaces with genetic algorithms334. c Optimal high-efficiency 3D plasmonic metasurface elements revealed by lazy ants338. d Flexible metasurface for microwave-infrared compatible camouflage via particle swarm optimization340. e Hybrid optimization methods integrating the adjoint method with machine learning techniques332. f Metasurface design via a greedy algorithm empowered by a self-organizing map neural network345.