Fig. 1: Schematic illustrated overview of essential requirements and optimal design strategies for chronically stable wearable and implantable bioelectronic devices.
From: Materials strategy and device fabrication for stable closed-loop bioelectronics
a Flexible and ultrathin patch-type devices enable seamless integration with the skin surface (Top). Stretchable serpentine patterning and ultrathin substrate provide enhanced mechanical compliance, stress dissipation, and self-healing capabilities. Implantable biosensing platforms and deformable biosensors are designed for adaptability to macroscopic tissue curvatures and maintain robust adhesion under shear and tensile stress (Middle). Minimally invasive approaches, including pre-folded devices and injectable hydrogel systems, reduce the need for surgical procedures and minimize scarring (Bottom). Conductive hydrogels, injected or molded to conform to tissue surfaces, further facilitate localized therapeutic and sensing functionalities. b Schematic illustration is shown for key features of implantable and wearable devices alongside their corresponding target tissues. c Schematic illustration (Created in BioRender. Son, D. (2025) https://BioRender.com/zx1a2k6) of depth-based classification of representative tissue targets and corresponding bioelectronic platforms. Target tissues are organized from superficial (e.g., skin) to deep (e.g., peripheral nerves and muscles) based on anatomical depth. For each depth level, proper types of functional devices (e.g., wearable patches, microneedles, implantable probes, and injectable hydrogels) are shown to reflect integration strategies. d Young’s modulus of biological tissues and materials commonly used in soft bioelectronics.
