Fig. 1: Attitude strength for opponents and supporters across three waves (before, during, and six months after implementation) of the NYC congestion charge.

For comparability, values for opponents have been negated to display oppositional attitude strength on the same visual scale as supporters’ attitudes. Thus, larger absolute values indicate stronger attitudes in both groups. Opponents expressed the strongest opposition during the implementation week, while supporters’ attitudes gradually strengthened over time. Points represent model-based means (lmer with IPW weighting) and shaded ribbons represent 95% confidence intervals.