Fig. 5: 4D printing of shape changing composites.
a Photothermal actuation of LCE filaments with carbon nanotubes (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 49, Copyright John Wiley and Sons). b Core–shell 3D printing of LCE filament with a liquid metal core and the reversible actuation upon Joule heating (scale bar = 5 mm) (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 51, Copyright John Wiley and Sons). c 4D printing of LCE composites with continuous fiber and their reversible shape changes upon heating (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 52, Copyright Springer Nature). d DIW printing of ferromagnetic particles reinforced composite, where particles are aligned during printing by a magnetic field around the nozzle, enabling complex shape changes in the composite structures. (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 53, Copyright Springer Nature). e Shear-induced alignment of cellulose fibrils during DIW. Bilayer flowers were demonstrated during the swelling process (scale bars = 5 mm, inset = 2.5 mm) (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 54, Copyright Springer Nature). f Folding deformation of composites due to mismatching thermal expansion coefficients between continuous fiber and polymer matrix (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 55, Copyright Elsevier). g Coaxial extrusion of hollow LCE fibers and their electrically driven reversible actuation when incorporating liquid metal (Image reproduced with permission from ref. 56, Copyright John Wiley and Sons).
