Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

End-of-life management for wind turbines

Nature Reviews Clean Technology volume 1, pages 677–698 (2025)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Global installed capacity of wind power reached 1,136 GW in 2024 (representing 8.1% of total electricity generation), and continued installation of new capacity is needed to provide renewable energy. Effective end-of-life (EOL) management strategies are, therefore, needed to recover materials from wind turbines. This Review assesses current and emerging EOL practices, comparing the environmental and economic trade-offs across mechanical, thermal and chemical recycling technologies. Wind turbines are built from a range of materials, including structural metals, concrete, composites and magnetic materials, which have distinct recovery pathways and barriers. Structural metal recycling is well developed and used commercially, but concrete recycling is more nascent and not competitive. Near-term scalable composite recycling technologies — including mechanical recycling and cement kiln co-processing — cannot recover the structural strengths of the original composite, but more advanced technologies — such as thermal fibre recovery and solvolysis — face energy and economic barriers to wide-scale deployment. Magnet recycling can either preserve material in its intact form through shorter loop processes or recover valuable rare-earth elements through longer loop processes. The size of the magnets could enable direct reuse of magnets, but it is complicated by changing designs. Further development of recycling and reuse pathways should be complemented by design that enables EOL management and materials circularity.

Key points

  • Metals such as iron, steel and copper have established recycling routes, but logistical, contamination and regional infrastructure challenges still affect recovery rates. Rare-earth elements and composite materials remain difficult to recover at scale.

  • Mechanical recycling of glass fibre-reinforced polymers is currently the most viable short-term solution to minimize environmental impact, but cement kiln co-processing could be more scalable economically in some areas. Thermal fibre recovery and solvolysis offer greater material recovery potential but face energy, cost and scalability barriers, such as uncertain recycling markets.

  • Emerging thermoplastic composites offer improved recycling options but long-term durability and scalable recycling routes are not yet proven or established.

  • The scale-up of emerging processes for recovering rare-earth elements in magnets and carbon fibre from turbine blades could increase wind turbine end-of-life material value. However, economic viability remains uncertain.

  • Decisions about end-of-life management of wind turbines should be guided by robust environmental, economic and circularity metrics, which capture trade-offs across different recovery pathways, including energy use, emissions and material quality.

  • Developing robust supply chains and markets for secondary materials, supported by strong policies and regulations, is crucial for the commercial viability of recycling processes.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Wind turbine material composition and recycling.
Fig. 2: Material intensity of onshore wind turbines by generator type.
Fig. 3: Global growth in wind capacity and associated material waste through 2050.
Fig. 4: EOL options and material flow pathways for wind turbines.
Fig. 5: Material composition and relative economic value indicators for wind turbines.
Fig. 6: Recycling options for separated NdFeB magnets.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. International Energy Agency. Net Zero by 2050 Scenario (IEA, 2021).

  2. International Renewable Energy Agency. Renewable Capacity Statistics 2025 and Renewable Energy Statistics 2024 (IRENA, 2025).

  3. Holzmüller, J. Analysing the lifetime of a wind turbine — operation past design life (poster) (WindEurope, 2016).

  4. Gennitsaris, S., Sagani, A., Sofianopoulou, S. & Dedoussis, V. Integrated LCA and DEA approach for circular economy-driven performance evaluation of wind turbine end-of-life treatment options. Appl. Energy 339, 120951 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Tazi, N., Kim, J., Bouzidi, Y., Chatelet, E. & Liu, G. Waste and material flow analysis in the end-of-life wind energy system. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 145, 199–207 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. WindEurope, Cefic & EuCIA. Accelerating Wind Turbine Blade Circularity (WindEurope, 2020).

  7. Bech Abrahamsen, A. et al. Method for estimating the future annual mass of decommissioned wind turbine blade material in Denmark. Wind Energy 27, 165–178 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. International Renewable Energy Agency. Country rankings. IRENA https://www.irena.org/Data/View-data-by-topic/Capacity-and-Generation/Country-Rankings (2024).

  9. Piel, J. H., Stetter, C., Heumann, M., Westbomke, M. & Breitner, M. H. Lifetime extension, repowering or decommissioning? Decision support for operators of ageing wind turbines. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1222, 012033 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. WindEurope. End of Life and Repowering Trends, and Policy Recommendations on Repowering (WindEurope, 2024).

  11. International Energy Agency. International resource strategy — national stockpiling system. IEA https://www.iea.org/policies/16639-international-resource-strategy-national-stockpiling-system (2025).

  12. Mendoza, J. M. F., Gallego-Schmid, A., Velenturf, A. P. M., Jensen, P. D. & Ibarra, D. Circular economy business models and technology management strategies in the wind industry: sustainability potential, industrial challenges and opportunities. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 163, 112523 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Pickering, S. J., Liu, Z., Turner, T. A. & Wong, K. H. Applications for carbon fibre recovered from composites. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 139, 12005 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Beauson, J., Laurent, A., Rudolph, D. P. & Pagh Jensen, J. The complex end-of-life of wind turbine blades: a review of the European context. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 155, 111847 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Kaya, M. An overview of NdFeB magnets recycling technologies. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 46, 100884 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. European Cement Research Academy. Closing the loop: what type of concrete re-use is the most sustainable option? Concrete Europe https://www.theconcreteinitiative.eu/newsroom/publications/165-closing-the-loop-what-type-of-concrete-re-use-is-the-most-sustainable-option (2016).

  17. Howarth, J., Mareddy, S. S. R. & Mativenga, P. T. Energy intensity and environmental analysis of mechanical recycling of carbon fibre composite. J. Clean. Prod. 81, 46–50 (2014).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Åkesson, D., Foltynowicz, Z., Christéen, J. & Skrifvars, M. Microwave pyrolysis as a method of recycling glass fibre from used blades of wind turbines. J. Reinf. Plast. Comp. 31, 1136–1142 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Naqvi, S. R. et al. A critical review on recycling of end-of-life carbon fibre/glass fibre reinforced composites waste using pyrolysis towards a circular economy. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 136, 118–129 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Kawajiri, K. & Kobayashi, M. Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of recycling processes for carbon fibers: a case study of ex-ante life cycle assessment for commercially feasible pyrolysis and solvolysis approaches. J. Clean. Prod. 378, 134581 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Prinçaud, M., Aymonier, C., Loppinet-Serani, A., Perry, N. & Sonnemann, G. Environmental feasibility of the recycling of carbon fibers from CFRPs by solvolysis using supercritical water. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2, 1498–1502 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Branfoot, C., Folkvord, H., Keith, M. & Leeke, G. A. Recovery of chemical recyclates from fibre-reinforced composites: a review of progress. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 215, 110447 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Nagle, A. J., Delaney, E. L., Bank, L. C. & Leahy, P. G. A comparative life cycle assessment between landfilling and co-processing of waste from decommissioned Irish wind turbine blades. J. Clean. Prod. 277, 123321 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Schindler, A. K., Duke, S. R. & Galloway, W. B. Co-processing of end-of-life wind turbine blades in Portland cement production. Waste Manag. 182, 207–214 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. National Development and Reform Commission. Guiding opinions on comprehensive utilisation of bulk solid waste during the 14th five-year plan. NDRC https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/fzggw/jgsj/zys/sjdt/202104/t20210429_1278101.html?code=&state=123 (2021).

  26. RDRWind. DIN SPEC 4866 — Sustainable Dismantling, Disassembly, Recycling and Recovery of Wind Turbines. DIN https://www.dinmedia.de/de/technische-regel/din-spec-4866/328634880 (2020).

  27. The State Council. Law of the People’s Republic of China on the prevention and control of environmental pollution by solid waste. State Council https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2020-04/30/content_5507561.htm (2020).

  28. Deeney, P. et al. End-of-life wind turbine blades and paths to a circular economy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 212, 115418 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Blaabjerg, F., Chen, M. & Huang, L. Power electronics in wind generation systems. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 1, 234–250 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Bilgili, M., Yasar, A. & Simsek, E. Offshore wind power development in Europe and its comparison with onshore counterpart. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 905–915 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. International Renewable Energy Agency. Future of Wind: Deployment, Investment, Technology, Grid Integration and Socio-Economic Aspects (IRENA, 2019).

  32. Mali, S. & Garrett, P. Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Production from an Onshore V136-4.2 MW Wind Plant (Vestas Wind Systems, 2022).

  33. Serrano-González, J. & Lacal-Arántegui, R. Technological evolution of onshore wind turbines — a market-based analysis. Wind Energy 19, 2171–2187 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Bortolotti, P. et al. IEA Wind TCP Task 37: Systems Engineering in Wind Energy — WP2.1 Reference Wind Turbines (NREL, 2019).

  35. Möllerström, E., Gipe, P., Beurskens, J. & Ottermo, F. A historical review of vertical axis wind turbines rated 100 kW and above. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 105, 1–13 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Möllerström, E., Gipe, P. & Ottermo, F. Wind power development: a historical review. Wind Eng. 49, 499–512 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Carrara, S., Alves Dias, P., Plazzotta, B. & Pavel, C. Raw Materials Demand for Wind and Solar PV Technologies in the Transition Towards a Decarbonised Energy System (Publications Office of the European Union, 2020).

  38. Gast, L., Meng, F. & Morgan, D. Assessing the circularity of onshore wind turbines: using material flow analysis for improving end-of-life resource management. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 204, 107468 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Cooperman, A. et al. Renewable Energy Materials Properties Database: Summary (NREL, 2023).

  40. Yang, J. Study on Resource Flow and Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Wind Power System in China. PhD Thesis, Beijing Normal (2020).

  41. Garrett, P. & Rønde, K. Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Production from a V110-2.0 MW Gridstreamer Wind Plant (Vestas Wind Systems, 2015).

  42. Allekotte, L. & Garrett, P. Life Cycle Assessments Electricity Production from an Offshore V236-15 MW Wind Plant (Vestas Wind Systems, 2024).

  43. Bhandari, R., Kumar, B. & Mayer, F. Life cycle greenhouse gas emission from wind farms in reference to turbine sizes and capacity factors. J. Clean. Prod. 277, 123385 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Eymann, L., Stucki, M., Fürholz, A. & König, A. Ökobilanzierung von Schweizer Windenergie (ZHAW, 2015).

  45. Martínez, E., Sanz, F., Pellegrini, S., Jiménez, E. & Blanco, J. Life cycle assessment of a multi-megawatt wind turbine. Renew. Energy 34, 667–673 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Spini, F. & Bettini, P. End-of-life wind turbine blades: review on recycling strategies. Compos. Part B Eng. 275, 111290 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Wood, K. Wind turbine blades: glass vs. carbon fiber. CW https://www.compositesworld.com/articles/wind-turbine-blades-glass-vs-carbon-fiber (2020).

  48. Yaosheng Fiberglass. The world’s longest pure fiberglass blade has passed the full-scale static load test at one time! Fiberglassys https://www.fiberglassys.com/https://www.fiberglassys.com/news/the-worlds-longest-pure-fiberglass-blade-has-passed-the-full-scale-static-load-test-at-one-time/ (2019).

  49. Meng, F., McKechnie, J., Turner, T., Wong, K. H. K. H. & Pickering, S. J. S. J. Environmental aspects of use of recycled carbon fiber composites in automotive applications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 12727–12736 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Meng, F., McKechnie, J., Turner, T. A. & Pickering, S. J. Energy and environmental assessment and reuse of fluidised bed recycled carbon fibres. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 100, 206–214 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Meng, F., Cui, Y., Pickering, S. & McKechnie, J. From aviation to aviation: environmental and financial viability of closed-loop recycling of carbon fibre composite. Compos. Part B Eng. 200, 108362 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Zhang, J., Lin, G., Vaidya, U. & Wang, H. Past, present and future prospective of global carbon fibre composite developments and applications. Compos. Part B Eng. 250, 110463 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Rezaei, F., Contestabile, P., Vicinanza, D. & Azzellino, A. Towards understanding environmental and cumulative impacts of floating wind farms: lessons learned from the fixed-bottom offshore wind farms. Ocean Coast. Manag. 243, 106772 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Liu, P. & Barlow, C. Y. Wind turbine blade waste in 2050. Waste Manag. 62, 229–240 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Farina, A. & Anctil, A. Material consumption and environmental impact of wind turbines in the USA and globally. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 176, 105938 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Cervantes Barron, K. & Cullen, J. M. Using open-source tools to project bulk and critical material demand and assess implications for low-carbon energy and transport systems: introducing Mat-dp model tools. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 209, 107803 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Energy Transitions Commission. Material and Resource Requirements for the Energy Transition (ETC, 2023).

  58. Li, J. et al. Critical rare-earth elements mismatch global wind-power ambitions. One Earth 3, 116–125 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. United Nations Environment Programme. Resource Efficiency and Climate Change: Material Efficiency Strategies for a Low-Carbon Future (UNEP, 2020).

  60. Allwood, J. M., Ashby, M. F., Gutowski, T. G. & Worrell, E. Material efficiency: a white paper. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 55, 362–381 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Kirchherr, J., Reike, D. & Hekkert, M. Conceptualizing the circular economy: an analysis of 114 definitions. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 127, 221–232 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Zotz, F. et al. Entwicklung Eines Konzepts Und Maßnahmen Für Einen Ressourcensichernden Rückbau von Windenergieanlagen (Umweltbundesamt, 2019).

  63. European Parliament, Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 Establishing a Framework for the Setting of Ecodesign Requirements for Sustainable Products, Amending Directive (EU) 2020/1828 and Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 and Repealing Directive 2009/125/EC (Publications Office of the European Union, 2024).

  64. Zuiderveen, E. A. R. et al. The potential of emerging bio-based products to reduce environmental impacts. Nat. Commun. 14, 8521 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Weston, D. Vestas installs new tower concept with cable support. Windpower Monthly https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1426444/vestas-installs-new-tower-concept-cable-support (2017).

  66. Sprin-D. Beventum project. Sprin-D https://www.sprind.org/de/projekte/beventum/ (2020).

  67. Uekert, T. et al. Technical, economic, and environmental comparison of closed-loop recycling technologies for common plastics. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 11, 965–978 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Cullen, J. M. & Cooper, D. R. Material flows and efficiency. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 52, 525–559 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Price, D. Yield improvement in the steel industry. Ironmak. Steelmak. 36, 482–486 (2009).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Cao, Z. et al. Resourcing the Fairytale country with wind power: a dynamic material flow analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 11313–11322 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Savvidou, G. & Johnsson, F. Material requirements, circularity potential and embodied emissions associated with wind energy. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 40, 471–487 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Financing the Circular Economy — Capturing the Opportunity (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2020).

  73. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Material circularity indicator. Ellen MacArthur Foundation https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/material-circularity-indicator (2015).

  74. Bracquené, E., Dewulf, W. & Duflou, J. R. Measuring the performance of more circular complex product supply chains. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 154, 104608 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Diez-Cañamero, B. & Mendoza, J. M. F. Circular economy performance and carbon footprint of wind turbine blade waste management alternatives. Waste Manag. 164, 94–105 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Cullen, J. M. Circular economy: theoretical benchmark or perpetual motion machine? J. Ind. Ecol. 21, 483–486 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Gokhale, A. U. Assessment of Recycling Potential and Circularity in Decommissioning of Offshore Wind Farms. MSc Thesis, Technical Univ. Denmark (2020).

  78. Carmona Aparicio, G., Carrasco, A., Whiting, K. & Cullen, J. The ecocircularity performance index: measuring quantity and quality in resource circularity assessments. Miner. Econ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-025-00490-1 (2025).

  79. Carmona, L. G., Whiting, K. & Cullen, J. in Technology Innovation for the Circular Economy Ch. 2 (ed. Nasr, N.) (Wiley,2024).

  80. Li, Q. et al. Life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis of a 40 MW wind farm with consideration of the infrastructure. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 138, 110499 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Brussa, G., Grosso, M. & Rigamonti, L. Life cycle assessment of a floating offshore wind farm in Italy. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 39, 134–144 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Huang, Y.-F., Gan, X.-J. & Chiueh, P.-T. Life cycle assessment and net energy analysis of offshore wind power systems. Renew. Energy 102, 98–106 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options (UNECE, 2022).

  84. Hermansson, F., Ekvall, T., Janssen, M. & Svanström, M. Allocation in recycling of composites — the case of life cycle assessment of products from carbon fiber composites. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 27, 419–432 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Meng, F. et al. Comparing life cycle energy and global warming potential of carbon fiber composite recycling technologies and waste management options. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6, 9854–9865 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Fayyaz, S., Lund, K. W., Khoshnevisan, B., Madsen, E. S. & Birkved, M. Sustainable end-of-life value chain scenarios for wind turbine blades. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2507, 012007 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Li, C. et al. Future material requirements for global sustainable offshore wind energy development. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 164, 112603 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Heng, H., Meng, F. & McKechnie, J. Wind turbine blade wastes and the environmental impacts in Canada. Waste Manag. 133, 59–70 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Bennet, L. Sustainable Decommissioning: Wind Turbine Blade Recycling (ORE Catapult, 2021).

  90. Sproul, E. G., Khalifa, S. A. & Ennis, B. L. Environmental and economic assessment of wind turbine blade recycling approaches. ACS Sustain. Resour. Manage. 2, 39–49 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Yang, J. et al. Solutions for recycling emerging wind turbine blade waste in China are not yet effective. Commun. Earth Environ. 4, 466 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Jiang, X., Shao, M. & Bateer, B. Economic and environmental analysis of composite recycling techniques for the design of future waste management supply chains. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 25, 1659–1671 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Meng, F., McKechnie, J. & Pickering, S. J. An assessment of financial viability of recycled carbon fibre in automotive applications. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 109, 207–220 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Rybicka, J., Tiwari, A. & Leeke, G. A. Technology readiness level assessment of composites recycling technologies. J. Clean. Prod. 112, 1001–1012 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. US Department of Energy. 2021 DOE critical materials strategy. DOE https://www.energy.gov/eere/ammto/2021-doe-critical-materials-strategy (2021).

  96. Veolia. Veolia recognized for being on the ‘cutting edge’ of wind turbine blade recycling. Veolia https://www.veolianorthamerica.com/media/newsroom/veolia-recognized-being-cutting-edge-wind-turbine-blade-recycling (2022).

  97. Franklin, E., Gavins, J. & Mehl, S. ‘I don’t think education is the answer’: a corpus-assisted ecolinguistic analysis of plastics discourses in the UK. J. World Lang. 8, 284–322 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Martinez-Marquez, D. et al. State-of-the-art review of product stewardship strategies for large composite wind turbine blades. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. Adv. 15, 200109 (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  99. Deeney, P. et al. End-of-life alternatives for wind turbine blades: sustainability indices based on the UN sustainable development goals. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 171, 105642 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Nagle, A. J., Mullally, G., Leahy, P. G. & Dunphy, N. P. Life cycle assessment of the use of decommissioned wind blades in second life applications. J. Environ. Manag. 302, 113994 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Woo, S. M. & Whale, J. A mini-review of end-of-life management of wind turbines: current practices and closing the circular economy gap. Waste Manag. Res. 40, 1730–1744 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Waldron, S. et al. Repowering onshore wind farms: technical and environmental explorations of foundation reuse. OSF https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/sczde (2022).

  103. US Department of Energy. Wind energy end-of-service guide. WINDExchange https://windexchange.energy.gov/end-of-service-guide (2023).

  104. WindEurope. Repowering and Lifetime Extension: Making the Most of Europe’s Wind Energy Resource (WindEurope, 2017).

  105. Bennet, L., Spyroudi, A. & Stevenson, L. End of Life Materials Mapping for Offshore Wind in Scotland (ORE Catapult, 2022).

  106. Jenkinson, O. Denmark grants lifetime extensions to its two oldest offshore wind farms. Windpower Monthly https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1923600?utm_source=website&utm_medium=social (2025).

  107. Vestas. Material Use in Vestas Turbines (Vestas, 2023).

  108. World Steel Association. Steel facts. World Steel Association https://worldsteel.org/about-steel/facts/steelfacts/ (2024).

  109. World Steel Association. Circular economy steel — the permanent material in the circular economy. World Steel Association https://worldsteel.org/circular-economy/ (2024).

  110. Oberle, B. et al. Global Resources Outlook 2019: Natural Resources for the Future We Want (United Nations Environment Programme, 2019).

  111. Rashedi, A., Sridhar, I. & Tseng, K. J. Multi-objective material selection for wind turbine blade and tower: Ashby’s approach. Mater. Des. 37, 521–532 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Igwemezie, V., Mehmanparast, A. & Kolios, A. Materials selection for XL wind turbine support structures: a corrosion-fatigue perspective. Mar. Struct. 61, 381–397 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. WindEurope. Decommissioning of onshore wind turbines — industry guidance document. (2020).

  114. Gode, P. R. & Aspelund, A. Addressing heterogeneity in the development of circular economy strategies in the offshore wind industry: a review. Heliyon 10, e39577 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Bailey, H., Brookes, K. L. & Thompson, P. M. Assessing environmental impacts of offshore wind farms: lessons learned and recommendations for the future. Aquat. Biosyst. 10, 8 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Fan, Z. & Friedmann, S. J. Low-carbon production of iron and steel: technology options, economic assessment, and policy. Joule 5, 829–862 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Sun, W., Wang, Q., Zhou, Y. & Wu, J. Material and energy flows of the iron and steel industry: status quo, challenges and perspectives. Appl. Energy 268, 114946 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. International Energy Agency. Emissions — electricity 2025. IEA https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-2025/emissions (2025).

  119. Elsheikh, H. & Eveloy, V. Renewable hydrogen based direct iron ore reduction and steel making with grid assistance. Energy Convers. Manag. 297, 117544 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Flint, I. P., Cabrera Serrenho, A., Lupton, R. C. & Allwood, J. M. Material flow analysis with multiple material characteristics to assess the potential for flat steel prompt scrap prevention and diversion without remelting. Environ. Sci. Technol. 54, 2459–2466 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Daehn, K. E., Cabrera Serrenho, A. & Allwood, J. M. How will copper contamination constrain future global steel recycling? Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 6599–6606 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Daehn, K. E., Serrenho, A. C. & Allwood, J. Finding the most efficient way to remove residual copper from steel scrap. Metall. Mater. Trans. B 50, 1225–1240 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Davis, C. et al. Reuse, remanufacturing and recycling in the steel sector. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 382, 20230244 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Dunant, C. F., Joseph, S., Prajapati, R. & Allwood, J. M. Electric recycling of Portland cement at scale. Nature 629, 1055–1061 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. DecomBlades. A three-year project providing the basis for commercialization of sustainable recycling of wind turbine blades. DecomBlades https://decomblades.dk/ (2024).

  126. Mishnaevsky, L. Sustainable end-of-life management of wind turbine blades: overview of current and coming solutions. Materials 14, 1124 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Re-Wind Network. Repurposing wind blades. Re-Wind Network https://www.re-wind.info (2024).

  128. Shen, L. & Worrell, E. in Handbook of Recycling 2nd edn (eds Meskers, C. et al.) 497–510 (Elsevier, 2024).

  129. Liu, P., Meng, F. & Barlow, C. Y. Wind turbine blade end-of-life options: an economic comparison. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 180, 106202 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Forsyth, M., Job, S., Fitzgerald, A. & Keen, N. The Sustainability of Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Good Practice Guide (Composites UK, 2022).

  131. Acciona. Acciona’s wind blade recycling plant ‘Waste2Fiber’ declared project of regional interest by the Navarra government. Acciona https://www.acciona.com/updates/news/accionas-wind-blade-recycling-plant-waste2fiber-declared-project-regional-interest-navarra-government (2024).

  132. Grisenti, D. REFRESH: from end-of-use blades to new products. Presented at The European Wind Blade Recycling Summit https://refresh-project.eu/publications/ (2025).

  133. Lefeuvre, A., Garnier, S., Jacquemin, L., Pillain, B. & Sonnemann, G. Anticipating in-use stocks of carbon fibre reinforced polymers and related waste generated by the wind power sector until 2050. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 141, 30–39 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Job, S. 20 years of recycling carbon fibre history. JEC Compos. Mag. 38–39 (2025).

  135. Pender, K. & Yang, L. Glass fibre composites recycling using the fluidised bed: a comparative study into the carbon footprint in the UK. Sustainability 16, 1016 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Job, S. Recycling glass fibre reinforced composites — history and progress. Reinf. Plast. 57, 1923 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Mamanpush, S. H., Li, H., Englund, K. & Tabatabaei, A. T. Recycled wind turbine blades as a feedstock for second generation composites. Waste Manag. 76, 708–714 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Palmer, J., Ghita, O. R., Savage, L. & Evans, K. E. Successful closed-loop recycling of thermoset composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 40, 490–498 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. SGS INTRON. LCA of Composite Waste Processing (EuCIA, 2024).

  140. DecomBlades. DecomBlades and 3B-fibreglass are ready to unlock circular recycling of glass fibre in wind turbine blades. DecomBlades https://decomblades.dk/index.php/2023/04/20/632/ (2024).

  141. Thomason, J., Jenkins, P. & Yang, L. Glass fibre strength — a review with relation to composite recycling. Fibers 4, 18 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Pender, K. & Yang, L. Regenerating performance of glass fibre recycled from wind turbine blade. Compos. Part B Eng. 198, 108230 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Thomason, J. L., Nagel, U., Yang, L. & Sáez, E. Regenerating the strength of thermally recycled glass fibres using hot sodium hydroxide. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 87, 220–227 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Dang, W., Kubouchi, M., Sembokuya, H. & Tsuda, K. Chemical recycling of glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin cured with amine using nitric acid. Polymer 46, 1905–1912 (2005).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Yuyan, L., Linghui, M., Yudong, H. & Lixun, L. Method of recovering the fibrous fraction of glass/epoxy composites. J. Reinf. Plast. Comp. 25, 1525–1533 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  146. Ahrens, A. et al. Catalytic disconnection of C–O bonds in epoxy resins and composites. Nature 617, 730–737 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Jagadeesh, P. et al. Sustainable recycling technologies for thermoplastic polymers and their composites: a review of the state of the art. Polym. Compos. 43, 5831–5862 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Obande, W., Ó Brádaigh, C. M. & Ray, D. Continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic acrylic–matrix composites prepared by liquid resin infusion — a review. Compos. Part B Eng. 215, 108771 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Arkema. ZEBRA consortium unveils second recyclable wind turbine blade, advances sustainability in wind energy. Arkema https://www.arkema.com/global/en/media/newslist/news/global/corporate/2023/20231220-zebra-unveils-second-recyclable-wind-turbine-blade/ (2023).

  150. Arkema. Elium thermoplastic resin for recyclable wind turbine blades. Arkema https://www.arkema.com/global/en/products/product-finder/product/incubator/elium/elium-resin-for-recyclable-wind-turbine-blades/ (2024).

  151. Cousins, D. S., Suzuki, Y., Murray, R. E., Samaniuk, J. R. & Stebner, A. P. Recycling glass fiber thermoplastic composites from wind turbine blades. J. Clean. Prod. 209, 1252–1263 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Obande, W. et al. Thermal reshaping as a route for reuse of end-of-life glass fibre-reinforced acrylic composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 257, 110662 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. European Composites Industry Association. Enabling circular composites starts with waste codes. EuCIA https://eucia.eu/enabling-circular-composites-starts-with-waste-codes/ (2024).

  154. REFRESH. Smart, circular recycling of composite wind turbine blades. REFRESH https://refresh-project.eu/ (2024).

  155. Kühne, C. et al. Entwicklung von Rückbau- und Recyclingstandards für Rotorblätter — Abschlussbericht (Umweltbundesamt, 2022).

  156. Gutfleisch, O. et al. Magnetic materials and devices for the 21st century: stronger, lighter, and more energy efficient. Adv. Mater. 23, 821–842 (2011).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Bull, J. & Harper, G. G. D. J. Small-Scale Wind Power Generation: A Practical Guide Vol. 1 (Crowood Press, 2010).

  158. Du, X. & Graedel, T. E. Global rare earth in-use stocks in NdFeB permanent magnets. J. Ind. Ecol. 15, 836–843 (2011).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Sagawa, M., Fujimura, S., Togawa, N., Yamamoto, H. & Matsuura, Y. New material for permanent magnets on a base of Nd and Fe (invited). J. Appl. Phys. 55, 2083–2087 (1984).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Ali, S. Social and environmental impact of the rare earth industries. Resources 3, 123–134 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Cui, J. et al. Manufacturing processes for permanent magnets: part I — sintering and casting. JOM 74, 1279–1295 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  162. Cherkezova-Zheleva, Z. et al. Green and sustainable rare earth element recycling and reuse from end-of-life permanent magnets. Metals 14, 658 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Hogberg, S. et al. Direct reuse of rare earth permanent magnets — wind turbine generator case study. In 2016 XXII Int. Conf. Electr. Mach. (IEEE, 2016).

  164. Ballestín-Bernad, V., Artal-Sevil, J. S., Domínguez-Navarro, J. A. & Bernal-Agustín, J. L. Low-cost variable-speed wind turbines design by recycling small electrical machines. Arrangement of permanent magnets in the rotor. Renew. Energy Power Qual. J. 20, 833–838 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  165. Schönfeldt, M. et al. Magnetic and structural properties of multiple recycled and sustainable sintered Nd–Fe–B magnets. J. Alloys Compd. 939, 168709 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Vestas. Materials and rare earths. Vestas https://www.vestas.com/en/sustainability/environment/materials-and-rare-earths (2024).

  167. Harris, I. R. & McGuiness, P. J. Hydrogen: its use in the processing of NdFeB-type magnets. J. Less Common Met. 172–174, 1273–1284 (1991).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Schönfeldt, M. et al. Functional recycling and reuse of Nd–Fe–B permanent magnets from various waste streams for a more sustainable and resilient electromobility. Adv. Eng. Mater. 27, 2402815 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  169. Wang, Q.-Q. et al. A critical life cycle assessment of present and potential rare earth circularity routes from permanent magnets. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 215, 108106 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Binnemans, K. et al. Recycling of rare earths: a critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 51, 1–22 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Itoh, M., Masuda, M., Suzuki, S. & Machida, K. Recycling of rare earth sintered magnets as isotropic bonded magnets by melt-spinning. J. Alloys Compd. 374, 393–396 (2004).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Heraeus Remloy. Your partner for recycling rare earth magnets. Heraeus Remloy https://www.heraeus-remloy.com/en/ (2025).

  173. Walton, A. et al. The use of hydrogen to separate and recycle neodymium–iron–boron-type magnets from electronic waste. J. Clean. Prod. 104, 236–241 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Opoku, E., Chinwego, C., Powell, A. & Mishra, B. Liquid metal leaching for rare earth magnet recycling. Metals 14, 1299 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Venkatesan, P., Sun, Z. H. I., Sietsma, J. & Yang, Y. An environmentally friendly electro-oxidative approach to recover valuable elements from NdFeB magnet waste. Sep. Purif. Technol. 191, 384–391 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Burkhardt, C. et al. An overview of hydrogen assisted (direct) recycling of rare earth permanent magnets. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 588, 171475 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Harris, I. R., Williams, A., Walton, A. & Speight, J. Magnet recycling. US patent US8734714B2 (2014).

  178. Zakotnik, M., Harris, I. R. & Williams, A. J. Multiple recycling of NdFeB-type sintered magnets. J. Alloys Compd. 469, 314–321 (2009).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Yang, Y. et al. REE recovery from end-of-life NdFeB permanent magnet scrap: a critical review. J. Sustain. Metall. 3, 122–149 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  180. Awais, M. et al. Hydrocyclone separation of hydrogen decrepitated NdFeB. Recycling 2, 22 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Deng, C., Zhang, X., Guo, F., Wang, S. & Wang, X. The current status of recycling technology for waste NdFeB resources. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 27, 796–811 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Xiao, F., Hu, W., Zhao, J. & Zhu, H. Technologies of recycling REEs and iron from NdFeB scrap. Metals 13, 779 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Zhang, Y. et al. Hydrometallurgical recovery of rare earth elements from NdFeB permanent magnet scrap: a review. Metals 10, 841 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Binnemans, K. & Jones, P. T. Ionic liquids and deep-eutectic solvents in extractive metallurgy: mismatch between academic research and industrial applicability. J. Sustain. Metall. 9, 423–438 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Alguacil, F. J. & Robla, J. I. Recent work on the recovery of rare earths using ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents. Minerals 13, 1288 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Sprecher, B. et al. Life cycle inventory of the production of rare earths and the subsequent production of NdFeB rare earth permanent magnets. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 3951–3958 (2014).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Zimmermann, T., Rehberger, M. & Gößling-Reisemann, S. Material flows resulting from large scale deployment of wind energy in Germany. Resources 2, 303–334 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  188. Garrett, P. & Rønde, K. Life cycle assessment of wind power: comprehensive results from a state-of-the-art approach. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 37–48 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Mathern, A., Von Der Haar, C. & Marx, S. Concrete support structures for offshore wind turbines: current status, challenges, and future trends. Energies 14, 1995 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Ansys. Ansys Granta EduPack: enhance your materials teaching. Ansys https://www.ansys.com/products/materials/granta-edupack (2021).

  191. Shanks, W. et al. How much cement can we do without? Lessons from cement material flows in the UK. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 141, 441–454 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  192. Worrell, E., Price, L., Martin, N., Hendriks, C. & Meida, L. O. Carbon dioxide emissions from the global cement industry. Annu. Rev. Energy. Environ. 26, 303–329 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Wang, R., Hu, Z., Li, Y., Wang, K. & Zhang, H. Review on the deterioration and approaches to enhance the durability of concrete in the freeze–thaw environment. Constr. Build. Mater. 321, 126371 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Wang, R., Zhang, Q. & Li, Y. Deterioration of concrete under the coupling effects of freeze–thaw cycles and other actions: a review. Constr. Build. Mater. 319, 126045 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Saucedo-Mora, L. & Thöns, S. in High Tech Concrete: Where Technology and Engineering Meet (eds Hordijk, D. A. & Luković, M.) 2144–2151 (Springer, 2018).

  196. Hobbs, D. W. Concrete deterioration: causes, diagnosis, and minimising risk. Int. Mater. Rev. 46, 117–144 (2001).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Velenturf, A. P. M. A framework and baseline for the integration of a sustainable circular economy in offshore wind. Energies 14, 5540 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Nguyen, H. & Rogers, M. Three steps to turbine repowering. Windpower Monthly https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1456033?utm_source=website&utm_medium=social (2018).

  199. Fernández, R. P. & Lamas Pardo, M. Offshore concrete structures. Ocean Eng. 58, 304–316 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  200. Lagat, C., Higgins, S. & Otto, C. Degradation of Subsea Concrete Structures (Curtin University, 2019).

  201. Welstead, J., Hirst, R., Keogh, D., Robb, G. & Bainsfair, R. Research and Guidance on Restoration and Decommissioning of Onshore Wind Farms (NatureScot, 2013).

  202. BVG Associates. Guide to an Offshore Wind Farm (BVG Associates, 2019).

  203. Garrick, A. J. H., Stephenson, S. D. & Allwood, J. M. Why aren’t we going faster? A flow-shop model of national infrastructure deployment dynamics applied to UK 2050 zero emissions targets. Preprint at SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5196542 (2025).

  204. Vetters, J., Thomassen, G. & Van Passel, S. Sailing through end-of-life challenges: a comprehensive review for offshore wind. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 199, 114486 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  205. Smyth, K. et al. Renewables-to-reefs? Decommissioning options for the offshore wind power industry. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 90, 247–258 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Fowler, A. M. et al. Environmental benefits of leaving offshore infrastructure in the ocean. Front. Ecol. Environ. 16, 571–578 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  207. Lemasson, A. J. et al. A global meta-analysis of ecological effects from offshore marine artificial structures. Nat. Sustain. 7, 485–495 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  208. James, R. & Ros, M. C. Floating Offshore Wind: Market and Technology Review (Carbon Trust, 2015).

  209. Martín-Morales, M., Zamorano, M., Ruiz-Moyano, A. & Valverde-Espinosa, I. Characterization of recycled aggregates construction and demolition waste for concrete production following the Spanish structural concrete code EHE-08. Constr. Build. Mater. 25, 742–748 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  210. Hurtado-Alonso, N., Manso-Morato, J., Revilla-Cuesta, V., Ortega-López, V. & Skaf, M. Optimization of concrete containing wind-turbine wastes following mechanical, environmental and economic indicators. Clean. Mater. 16, 100317 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  211. Etxeberria, M., Marí, A. R. & Vázquez, E. Recycled aggregate concrete as structural material. Mater. Struct. 40, 529–541 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  212. Baturkin, D., Hisseine, O. A., Masmoudi, R., Tagnit-Hamou, A. & Massicotte, L. Valorization of recycled FRP materials from wind turbine blades in concrete. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 174, 105807 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Pamenter, S. & Myers, R. J. Decarbonizing the cementitious materials cycle: a whole-systems review of measures to decarbonize the cement supply chain in the UK and European contexts. J. Ind. Ecol. 25, 359–376 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Oksri-Nelfia, L., Mahieux, P.-Y., Amiri, O., Turcry, P. & Lux, J. Reuse of recycled crushed concrete fines as mineral addition in cementitious materials. Mater. Struct. 49, 3239–3251 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Shah, I. H., Miller, S. A., Jiang, D. & Myers, R. J. Cement substitution with secondary materials can reduce annual global CO2 emissions by up to 1.3 gigatons. Nat. Commun. 13, 5758 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Carriço, A., Bogas, J. A. & Guedes, M. Thermoactivated cementitious materials — a review. Constr. Build. Mater. 250, 118873 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  217. Jones, K. E. S. & Li, M. Life cycle assessment of additively manufactured foundations for ultratall wind turbine towers. Wind Energy 27, 1427–1449 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  218. German Ecodesign Award. Wind turbines: precast foundation. Bundespreis Ecodesign https://www.bundespreis-ecodesign.de/en/winners/2022-windkraft-fertigteil-fundamente (2022).

  219. Upadhyayula, V. K. K. et al. Wind turbine blades using recycled carbon fibers: an environmental assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 1267–1277 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Stecher, H. & Salgado, F. J. H.-O. Wind blades circularity — resins development for improved sustainability. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1293, 012006 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  221. Memija, A. Swancor to supply recyclable resins for Siemens Gamesa’s recyclable blades. offshoreWIND https://www.offshorewind.biz/2024/03/20/swancor-to-supply-recyclable-resins-for-siemens-gamesas-recyclableblades/ (2024).

  222. ZEBRA. ZEBRA project achieves key milestone with production of the first prototype of its recyclable wind turbine blade. GE Vernova https://www.gevernova.com/news/press-releases/zebra-project-achieves-key-milestone-with-production-of-first-prototype-of-recyclable-wind-turbine-blade (2022).

  223. Zhang, Y. et al. Recent advances in recyclable thermosets and thermoset composites based on covalent adaptable networks. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 92, 75–87 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Montarnal, D., Capelot, M., Tournilhac, F. & Leibler, L. Silica-like malleable materials from permanent organic networks. Science 334, 965–968 (2011).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Van Lijsebetten, F., Debsharma, T., Winne, J. M. & Du Prez, F. E. A highly dynamic covalent polymer network without creep: mission impossible? Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61, e202210405 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  226. La Rosa, A. D., Banatao, D. R., Pastine, S. J., Latteri, A. & Cicala, G. Recycling treatment of carbon fibre/epoxy composites: materials recovery and characterization and environmental impacts through life cycle assessment. Compos. Part B Eng. 104, 17–25 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  227. UK National Composites Centre. NCC, Cygnet Texkimp and B&M Longworth successfully recycle reclaimed continuous carbon fibres from composites pressure vessels. NCC https://www.nccuk.com/news/recycled-carbon-fibre-tanks/ (2024).

  228. Kamarulzaman, S. et al. Covalent adaptable networks from renewable resources: crosslinked polymers for a sustainable future. Chem 9, 2771–2816 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Wu, X. et al. Closed-loop recyclability of a biomass-derived epoxy-amine thermoset by methanolysis. Science 384, eadj9989 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Kreschel, T. & Volkova, O. In Handbook of Recycling Ch. 19 (eds Meskers, C., Worrell, E. & Reute, M. A.) 301–318 (Elsevier, 2024).

  231. Brown, S. et al. FRP Circular Economy Study: Industry Summary (Composites UK, 2018).

  232. Jacoby, M. How can companies recycle wind turbine blades? C&EN https://cen.acs.org/environment/recycling/companies-recycle-wind-turbine-blades/100/i27 (2022).

  233. Shuaib, N. A., Mativenga, P. T., Kazie, J. & Job, S. Resource efficiency and composite waste in UK supply chain. Proc. CIRP 29, 662–667 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  234. Hecker, M. D. From Sail to Structure: Recycling End-of-Life Sails by Carbon Fibre Reclamation and Composite Remanufacture. PhD Thesis, Univ. Bristol (2024).

  235. Tapper, R. J., Longana, M. L., Norton, A., Potter, K. D. & Hamerton, I. An evaluation of life cycle assessment and its application to the closed-loop recycling of carbon fibre reinforced polymers. Compos. Part B Eng. 184, 107665 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Kaza, S. & Yao, L. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050 (World Bank, 2018).

  237. Cooperman, A. et al. Renewable Energy Materials Properties Database (NREL, 2023).

  238. Rizos, V., Righetti, E. & Kassab, A. Understanding the barriers to recycling critical raw materials for the energy transition: the case of rare earth permanent magnets. Energy Rep. 12, 1673–1682 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  239. International Renewable Energy Agency. Innovation Outlook Offshore Wind (IRENA, 2016).

  240. Pavel, C. C. et al. Substitution strategies for reducing the use of rare earths in wind turbines. Resour. Policy 52, 349–357 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  241. Ackermann, T. Wind Power in Power Systems (Wiley, 2012).

  242. Alonso, E. et al. Evaluating rare earth element availability: a case with revolutionary demand from clean technologies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 3406–3414 (2012).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Jäger, A., Miao, Z. C. & Weyand, S. Recovering rare-earth magnets from wind turbines — a potential analysis for Germany. Energies 18, 2436 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  244. Carrara, S. et al. Deep Dive on Critical Raw Materials for Wind Turbines in the EU (Publications Office of the European Union, 2025).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge support from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (no. 2022YFB4202101), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (nos 52388101, 52225902 and 72161147003) and the Guangdong Institute of Chinese Engineering Development Strategies (2025-GD-04), the Royal Society ISPF — International Collaboration Awards (ICA/R1/231046), Saudi Aramco (189360), the EPSRC funded RECREATE (Recycling Critical Elements in Advanced Technologies for the Environment) project (EP/Y53058X/1) and from the European Union funded Harmony Project (EC-GA 101138767/IUK10094315).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Chemical, Material and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

    Fanran Meng, Jennifer L. Hawkin, Conchúr M. Ó Brádaigh, Rachael Rothman & Iain Todd

  2. Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, University College London, London, UK

    Lukas Gast

  3. Workgroup for Infrastructure Policy (WIP), Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    Lukas Gast

  4. Grazebrook Innovation, Oxford, UK

    Stella Job

  5. Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    Jonathan M. Cullen

  6. School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

    Gary A. Leeke

  7. Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

    Jon McKechnie

  8. Vestas Wind Systems A/S, Aarhus, Denmark

    Allan K. Poulsen

  9. Grantham Centre for Sustainable Futures, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

    Rachael Rothman & Anthony J. Ryan

  10. School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

    Anthony J. Ryan

  11. School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

    Allan Walton & Gavin D. J. Harper

  12. Birmingham Centre for Strategic Elements and Critical Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

    Allan Walton & Gavin D. J. Harper

  13. Guangdong Basic Research Center of Excellence for Ecological Security and Green Development, Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, P.R. China

    Zhifeng Yang

  14. State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

    Lixiao Zhang

Authors
  1. Fanran Meng
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer L. Hawkin
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lukas Gast
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Stella Job
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Conchúr M. Ó Brádaigh
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jonathan M. Cullen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Gary A. Leeke
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Jon McKechnie
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Allan K. Poulsen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Rachael Rothman
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Anthony J. Ryan
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Iain Todd
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Allan Walton
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Gavin D. J. Harper
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Zhifeng Yang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  16. Lixiao Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the conceptualization of the study. Methodology was developed by F.M., L.G. and S.J. Formal analysis was conducted by F.M., L.G., S.J., A.K.P., J.L.H. and G.D.J.H. The original draft of the manuscript was written by F.M., L.G. and S.J. All authors contributed to reviewing and/or editing the manuscript before submission.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Fanran Meng or Lixiao Zhang.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

A.W. is a director of Hypromag, a company specializing in the recycling of rare-earth magnets. A.K.P. is Head of Materials and Sustainable Scaling at Vestas. The other authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Reviews Clean Technology thanks Elif Emil Kaya, Joan Manuel F. Mendoza and Kyle Pender for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Glossary

Circularity

A systemic approach aimed at retaining the value of materials, components and products in the economy for as long as possible.

Circularity index

(CI). A percentage measure, in which 100% indicates perfect circularity, calculated as the product of a measure of material quantity (α, the ratio of recovered end-of-life material against total material demand) and one of material quality (β, the ratio of energy needed for material recovery against energy required for primary material production).

Circularity potential

The quantity of material required for a product, which could be sourced from secondary material supply.

Closed-loop recycling

The transformation of waste into new raw materials, which could be used in place of the original function or application.

Closed-loop reuse

Using a component or material again as parts in other wind turbines to supply its original designed function.

Cut-off allocation

A method used to manage multifunctional processes in life-cycle analysis, in which, for example, the burdens of initial production are allocated to the first life and those of recycling allocated to the second use, with no credit given to the first life for the avoided impacts of recycling.

Decommissioning

Removing wind turbines from a project (without replacement) and restoration of the site.

Ecocircularity performance index

An advanced circularity metric that incorporates both material inflow/outflow dynamics and life-cycle environmental impacts.

End-of-life

(EOL). When components or systems have reached the end of their initially intended design lifetime, or which would be classified as too damaged for further use without non-routine repair.

Full repowering

Replacing turbines with new ones to increase turbine capacity, using existing grid connections.

Lifetime extensions

Analysis and monitoring to extend design life with minimal additional material demands.

Material circularity indicator

A measure of how effectively a product’s materials are kept in use by evaluating the proportion of virgin material input, the amount of unrecoverable waste generated and how long and intensively the product is used compared with industry norms, resulting in a score between 0 and 1 that reflects its circularity.

Material demand reduction

Approaches to minimize overall material demands (and therefore waste generation).

Material efficiency

The pursuit of approaches (including circularity) to reduce the material intensity (the amount of material production and processing) required to provide material services.

Material yield

The share of input material to a process, which is used within the final product from that process.

Net present value

The value of all future cash flows, discounted to the present to account for the time value of money in techno-economic analysis.

Open-loop recycling

The transformation of waste into new raw materials, which could not be used in place of the original function or application.

Open-loop reuse

Use of a component or material in another application, requiring minimal processing; typically, the material properties and design requirements are lower than those needed for the original function.

Partial repowering

Replacing some turbine components to increase generation efficiency; generally uses existing towers and foundations.

Product circularity indicator

A measure of circularity that builds on the material circularity indicator to evaluate product circularity between 0 (completely linear) and 1 (perfectly circular); it considers manufacturing stages to include material losses during manufacture and the uses of recycled and reused materials/components within the circularity evaluation74.

Pyrolysis

Thermal decomposition of organic matter in the absence or near absence of oxygen; it produces a range of products including gases, liquids (oils) and solids (char).

Recycled concrete aggregate

(RCA). The material obtained by crushing and processing waste concrete, which can be used in place of natural aggregates (such as sand, gravel and crushed stone) in new concrete production.

Solvolysis

A chemical reaction in which a solvent acts as a nucleophile, cleaving chemical bonds.

Thermolysis

The chemical decomposition of materials through the application of heat, but without combustion, which can include pyrolysis, fluidized bed, gasification and other processes.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Meng, F., Hawkin, J.L., Gast, L. et al. End-of-life management for wind turbines. Nat. Rev. Clean Technol. 1, 677–698 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-025-00097-3

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-025-00097-3

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing