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Pacific hotspots reveal a Louisville–Ontong Java Nui tectonic link

Nature volume 641, pages 388–394 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Volcanic hotspots are thought to form by melting in an upwelling mantle plume head followed by melting of the plume tail. Plate motion then generates an age-progressive volcanic track originating from a large igneous province to a currently active hotspot. The most voluminous large igneous province, the approximately 120-million-year-old Ontong Java Nui Plateau (OJP-Nui) in the mid-Pacific, however, lacks an obvious volcanic track. Although the Louisville hotspot track was originally proposed as a candidate, limited constraints for Pacific absolute plate and plume motion before 80 million years ago (Ma) suggest a mismatch1. Existing Pacific models rely on age–distance data from the continuous Hawai‘i–Emperor and Louisville tracks, but their tracks older than approximately 80 Ma are subducted. Elsewhere on the Pacific Plate, only discontinuous seamount tracks that formed before 80 Ma are documented2,3,4,5,6,7. Currently, models require approximately 1,200 kilometres of latitudinal motion to link the Louisville plume to the OJP-Nui1, but palaeolatitude estimates from about 70 Ma to today remain within error of its present location8,9, suggesting that any substantial Louisville plume motion occurred earlier. Here, through a combination of geochemistry and geochronology9,10,11,12,13,14, we demonstrate that Samoa and Rurutu–Arago are the longest-lived Pacific hotspots, traceable to more than 100 Ma before subducting into the Mariana Trench. These tracks better constrain plate rotation between 80 Ma and 100 Ma, allowing us to update Pacific absolute plate motion models and link the Louisville volcanic track to OJP-Nui without requiring major plume motion.

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Fig. 1: Map of Pacific hotspot tracks and geochemical lava flow compositions.
Fig. 2: Geochemistry and geochronology of volcanic structures linked to the OJP-Nui and Louisville system.
Fig. 3: Cartoon of Louisville hotspot evolution.

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Data availability

All data generated during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary Information files, and are available in the EARTHCHEM repository (https://doi.org/10.60520/IEDA/113695). Source data are provided with this paper.

Code availability

The best-fit plate rotation MATLAB code is available upon request from the corresponding author.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by NOAA OER and GFOE, and is part of NSF-OCE project 1912934 to J.G.K. and P.W. A.A. was supported by NSF-REU grant 1560196 to P.W. M.G.J. was supported by NSF-OCE project 1912931. A.A.P.K. was supported by NSF-OCE 1912932. We thank the crew and the team of ROV pilots and engineers aboard the E/V Okeanos Explorer during the EX1606 expedition. This paper is dedicated to the memories of our first author, Jasper G. Konter, and our co-author, Paul Wessel.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Deceased: J. G. Konter, P. Wessel

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Earth Sciences, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

    J. G. Konter, V. A. Finlayson & P. Wessel

  2. Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

    V. A. Finlayson

  3. College of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA

    K. Konrad, A. A. P. Koppers & S. Beethe

  4. Department of Earth Science, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

    M. G. Jackson

  5. School of the Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

    M. Bizimis

  6. Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

    A. Alverson

  7. Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

    C. Kelley

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  1. J. G. Konter
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  5. A. A. P. Koppers
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Contributions

J.G.K. and V.A.F. contributed equally to this study. Conceptualization: J.G.K., V.A.F., M.G.J. and A.A.P.K. Field expedition and sampling: C.K. and J.G.K. Sample preparation and data collection: A.A., J.G.K., M.B. and S.B. Modelling: J.G.K., P.W. and A.A.P.K. Writing, editing and figures (original draft): all authors. Writing, editing, modelling and figures (revised version): V.A.F., K.K., M.G.J. and A.A.P.K.

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Correspondence to V. A. Finlayson.

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended Data Fig. 1 Idealized map of the Pacific Ocean basin, showing relevant hotspot tracks, anchored at present-day locations indicated with black dots.

Different sections of the hotspot tracks are color-coded by approximate range in eruption ages18. In the West Pacific, many sections are represented by seamount groups known by their own names. In light blue, the three oceanic plateaus are shown that are thought to have made up Ontong-Java Nui together.

Extended Data Fig. 2 100 Ma plate configuration and relative position of volcanic structures relevant to APM modeling (gloal projection from GPlates101).

Shatsky Rise and Mid-Pacific Mountains erupted near a spreading center (likely causing plume motion5), while Rurutu-Arago and Samoa erupted within the growing Pacific plate. Louisville’s position shows the approximate modeled track for the updated model rotation.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Summary of new and previously published isotopic data for the Rurutu-Arago hotspot track.

Non-age-corrected plots of A) 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb, B) 143Nd/144Nd vs. 206Pb/204Pb, C) 208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb, D) 143Nd/144Nd vs. 87Sr/86Sr, E) 143Nd/144Nd vs. 176Hf/177Hf, F) 206Pb/204Pb vs. 87Sr/86Sr, and G) 87Sr/86Sr vs. 176Hf/177Hf of our new Wake seamount samples (hexagons) compared to published data for the Tuvalu, Gilbert Ridge, Marshall/Ratak, and Wake Seamount portions of the Rurutu-Arago track (circles). Background data for young segments of the Cook-Austral plumes (Macdonald, Rurutu-Arago, Rarotonga), the Samoan plume, and Pacific MORB are given as 2σ contours of kernel density estimates (KDEs) of their respective datasets. Rarotonga lacks enough overlapping Sr, Pb, and Hf isotope data to be shown in panels E and G. Jurassic Pacific MORB data with seawater U alteration92 is also shown as small black open circles as a reference for how Pb isotopes may be disrupted in old seafloor basalts – and which is not evident in our new Wake samples (panels A-D). In both plots, the new Wake data plots within the known compositional range for the Wake Seamounts and the greater extent of the track. One of the new samples (outlined in cyan in panels A-C, F) has unusually high 208Pb/204Pb; this is a signature occasionally expressed in older Rurutu-Arago lavas and persists after strong leaching14. Here, 208Pb/204Pb is positively correlated with Th/U (see Extended Data Fig. 10), indicating U loss during alteration. Data are not corrected for post-eruptive radiogenic ingrowth (see Methods). We also identify a clear phosphatization signature (high Y/Y*; see Supplementary Data Table 1) in another of the new Wake samples (outlined in red in panels B, D, and G). As discussed in detail in the Supplement, strongly leached samples that have undergone significant phosphatization tend to have highly radiogenic 143Nd/144Nd of unclear origin. In such samples, Nd isotopes decouple from Sr isotopes (panel D) and Hf isotopes (panel E); obscuring some source mantle information. Here, 87Sr/86Sr vs. 176Hf/177Hf provide a more useful “isotopic fingerprint” of the HIMU-to-FOZO provenance characteristic of other Rurutu-Arago seamounts than plots using 143Nd/144Nd, and are consistent with interpretations from the Pb isotopes.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Age-distance relationships of the Rurutu-Arago, Samoan, and Louisville plumes.

A) Rurutu-Arago hotspot track. B) Samoa hotspot track. C) Louisville hotspot track. See Background Data Sources For Figures in Methods for data sources. Data shown here are only samples with age determinations or published age estimates (where well constrained by nearby volcanoes14,29 and Sr-Pb-Nd data to permit color coding. APM models are also included for reference (WK0841 = Wessel and Kroenke, 2008; D126 = Doubrovine et al., 2012 without plume drift correction; K0118 = Koppers et al., 2001; K01m = modified Koppers et al., 2001 from this study). The oldest portions of the Hotspot Highway are in good agreement with K01m model predictions; some scatter occurs as a function of plume drift (e.g., Cretaceous portion of the Samoa hotspot; see Extended Data Fig. 8). For the hotspots shown here, the data are consistent with age progressions that can be traced back into the Cretaceous, including the successful 91.3 Ma age determination from our new sample set. Rurutu-Arago has HIMU to FOZO-like compositions, while Samoan volcanoes are EM-type to FOZO in composition. The Rurutu-Arago age progression can be clearly traced into the Wakes and back to ~ 120 Ma. The Samoan plume was active during the Cretaceous, forming the Magellan chain in the West Pacific where EM2 and EM1 compositions consistent with those found in Samoan shield and rejuvenated volcanoes, respectively (see Extended Data Fig. 6 for details). The FOZO Louisville hotspot track and older Ellice Basin Seamounts as well as Seka Seamount; which are likely FOZO-to-DMMlike with Pb isotopes partly overprinted by seawater U ingrowth, are also age-progressive.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Great circle distance (km) from active hotspot center vs. 143Nd/144Nd (not age-corrected) for hotspot tracks with and without plume-ridge interaction.

A) Rurutu-Arago, B) Louisville-Ellice Basin Seamounts, and C) Hawai‘i-Emperor hotspot tracks. Isochrons are provided as dashed lines, and light grey fields mark where the plumes interacted with ridges or fracture zones. All three hotspot tracks record significant variability in isotopic composition over time that correspond to interaction of the plume with major lithospheric structural features. Rurutu-Arago, which was a true-intraplate hotspot for the entirety of its documented history, produced episodes of depleted (high 143Nd/144Nd) melts that coincide spatially with major lithospheric structures, but otherwise maintains a fairly constant 143Nd/144Nd over time. Samples with evidence of phosphatization (high Y/Y* and/or P2O5; see Extended Data Fig. 10) are shown as light grey circles with red outlines. Black circles with red outlines are samples that may have been phosphatized (143Nd/144Nd > ~0.5131) but cannot be confirmed due to lack of available major and trace element data. By contrast, the Louisville hotspot track, including the Ellice Basin Seamounts, records a long-term trend of enrichment with time that records its transition from plume-ridge interaction to true intraplate. Deviations also occur when the plume crossed the Osbourn Trough (however, it remains unclear whether this is related to the Louisville plume), and later the Wishbone Scarp (attributed to source mantle heterogeneity29,64). The broad enrichment trend in Louisville is similar to long-term enrichment observed in the Hawaiian plume, which also interacted with a ridge in the Cretaceous before transitioning to a true-intraplate plume system112. Data sources are the same as in Fig. 1.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Compositional overlap between modern Samoa (<5 Ma) and Cretaceous Samoan volcanoes—Hemler and Vlinder seamounts—in the West Pacific.

Most of the geochemical evolution of Samoan volcanoes through time is reflected in a drill core into Tutuila Island (Samoa49). This shows (red arrow) a change in lava compositions from shield to rejuvenated lavas, with volcanoes active over the past 5 Ma114. The older samples31,91 (ages shown in white text bubbles) from Hemler and Vlinder (~100 Ma) mainly plot around the shield lavas in Samoa while the youngest samples (~95 Ma) continue through the rejuvenated lavas represented by the most extreme EM1 type composition in the Samoan area (Uo Mamae119).

Extended Data Fig. 7 Map of West Pacific seamounts, showing Rurutu-Arago and Samoa predicted hotspot tracks (K0118 in dark shade, this study in light shade).

A) 143Nd/144Nd (red) and 206Pb/204Pb (blue) compositions of Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc volcanoes52 versus latitude. B) Corresponding map of the West Pacific with model reconstructions illustrating predicted locations where the Rurutu-Arago and Samoa hotspot tracks are subducted. Black numbers with white outline represent ages31,115, while numbers in red represent likely unrelated volcanic ages, given large age difference with expected age along the hotspot track and difference in composition (pink circle31). New Wake region isotope data (hexagons) and a 91.3 Ma age determination provides the “missing link” that suggests that Rurutu hotspot continues through the seamounts west of Wake Island. The samples outlined with red has 143Nd/144Nd affected by phosphatization. The existing (dark blue18) APM model track for the Rurutu-Arago hotspot is devoid of major seamounts, while the new track (light blue) continues the unusual isotopic composition and morphological chain to the Izu-Bonin-Mariana trench. A similar prediction for Samoa (red: K0118; orange: updated) shows both hotspots have a corresponding unusual spike in isotopic compositions in the arc (left panel; lines represent running means), indicating prior subduction of a continuing chain of similar composition, mixing Rurutu-Arago (HIMU) or Samoa (EM2) hotspot material into the mantle wedge.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Determination of the updated 100-80 Ma Euler Pole.

A) Rotation (Euler) pole modeling is accomplished by a grid search for the best-fit pole (0.7°S, 315.7°E), shown as the latitude-longitude location for which the minimum misfit is found (white dot). B) Constraints for the modeled rotation are the colored seamount locations (blue and red, selected based on their apparent fit in composition), and the approximate age range for these volcanic tracks (80–100 Ma), based on model-specific, new, and adjacent seamount volcanic ages31,91 (black numbers next to seamount markers). Only two samples from EX1606 had material suitable for age dating, but four of the samples were attempted. Two succeeded, with one yielding a 91.3 Ma age that confirms that the Rurutu-Arago plume was active in the Wake region. The second successful sample predates passage of this area of the Pacific crust over the Rurutu-Arago hotspot and is excluded as a constraint on the modified stage pole. The two unsuccessful samples lacked a statistically robust plateau and were therefore inconclusive. Open circles represent Wake area seamounts and their ages, predating the 80–100 Ma time period modeled.

Extended Data Fig. 9 Backtracked original eruptive locations for Samoa and Cook-Austral-related volcanoes (Cook-Austral, Samoa, Tuvalu, Gilbert, Wake, Magellan, Tokelau), using various absolute plate motion models.

A) this study; B) Koppers0118; C) Wessel0841; D) Doubrovine126. Backtracked seamounts color-coded (lower left panel) for their isotopic compositions show that at present-day hotspots (purple text) are the focus of clusters of consistent geochemical compositions, defined by grey (2) and purple (1) contours for Gaussian-kernel probability density estimates for the backtracked locations. Insets show these density contours and the running mean of backtracked location and age to estimate plume motion from model mismatch from fixed hotspots (a-d). Backtracked (grey symbols6) locations for Hawai‘i (E) and Louisville (F) and their smoothed age-track (wide yellow or orange) highlight a deviation from predicted plume motion (S04/red100 and D12/purple6) beyond 50 Ma, indicating a mismatch for plate motion models into the Cretaceous. Outlines show Ontong-Java Plateau (OJP) backtracked with the new model overlap with Louisville, where stars show approximate center of Ontong-Manihiki-Hikurangi. Red arrows show smoothed tracks match derived latitudinal plume motion from paleomagnetic latitudes13,96. Backtracking of OJP assumes fixed relationship to the Pacific plate, with no rotation of the plateau11.

Extended Data Fig. 10 Trace element alteration proxies versus Sr-Nd-Pb isotope compositions of the new Wakes (EX1606) samples.

A) Th/U versus measured 206Pb/204Pb, B) Th/U versus measured 208Pb/204Pb, and C-F) Y/Y* versus radiogenic isotope compositions. Versus Th/U, 206Pb/204Pb (A) exhibits only a weak correlation with Th/U, while 208Pb/204Pb (B) is much more strongly correlated, indicating modification of U abundances in the EX1606 samples. 143Nd/144Nd (E) exhibits some correlation versus Y/Y*, a proxy for phosphatization, becoming more radiogenic at high Y/Y*, while Pb and Sr isotopes show no correlation.

Extended Data Fig. 11 40Ar/39Ar Age determinations for EX1606-D3-3 and EX1606-D13-1.

A) Stacked EX1606-D3-3 age plateau from plagioclase separates for Batfish Seamount (n = 2). Included steps are shown in dark blue and dark yellow, and not included steps are shown in light blue and light yellow. B) Inverse Isochron for EX1606-D3-3 plagioclase separates (n = 2). Included steps are shown in blue and yellow, and not included steps are shown in grey. The solid line indicates the measured 40Ar/36Ar initial ratios. C) EX1606-D3-3 age plateau from a clinopyroxene separate. Included steps are shown in dark green, and not-included steps are shown in light green. D) EX1606-D13-1 age plateau from plagioclase separates at Unnamed Seamount (n = 1). Included steps are shown in dark blue and not-included steps are shown in light blue. E) Inverse isochron for EX1606-D13-1 for groundmass and plagioclase separates (n = 4). Included steps are shown in blue, and not included steps are shown in grey. The solid line indicates the measured 40Ar/36Ar initial ratios F) Stacked EX1606-D13-1 age plateau determinations for groundmass separates. None of the groundmass experiments produced a concordant age determination.

Extended Data Table 1 Stage poles for the Modified Pacific Hotspot Reference Frame Absolute Plate Motion Model (italics from K0118)
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Extended Data Table 2 Locations used to constrain the revised 100-80 Ma stage pole
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Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Methods and Discussion.

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Supplementary Table 1

This file contains full isotopic and bulk compositional data for the Wake samples presented in this study.

Supplementary Table 2

This file contains isotopic and bulk compositional data for standards run alongside the Wake samples presented in this study.

Supplementary Table 3

This file contains 40Ar/39Ar results for the Wake samples presented in this study.

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Konter, J.G., Finlayson, V.A., Konrad, K. et al. Pacific hotspots reveal a Louisville–Ontong Java Nui tectonic link. Nature 641, 388–394 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08889-0

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