Introduction

The COVID-19 outbreak has significantly impacted people’s lives, resulting in negative psychological and behavioral consequences, including anxiety, depression, and stress (Kang et al. 2020; Xiang et al. 2020; Tasso et al. 2021; Nooripour et al. 2022). However, there is evidence that positive psychological changes, such as increased psychological resilience, have been observed in the general population (Vazquez et al. 2021; Gaboardi, et al. 2024; Bai et al. 2023). The concept of post-traumatic growth (PTG) was proposed by Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996) and refers to the positive psychological changes that can occur when individuals struggle with a major crisis, resulting in improved adaptation and psychological functioning. As the saying goes, “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger.” PTG offers a constructive perspective on navigating extremely challenging crises. This perspective, crucial for comprehending and confronting the trauma of COVID-19, underscores the importance of not overlooking the potential positive growth that may result from the challenges posed by the pandemic.

Numerous researchers have posited that the COVID-19 pandemic has evolved into a sustained and enduring collective trauma phenomenon (Nooripour et al. 2022). PTG and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are two possible consequences that emerge from highly stressful situations. PTSD is a psychiatric disorder that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a terrible event or set of circumstances, with emotionally or physically harmful symptoms that last long after the traumatic event has ended (American Psychiatric Association 2013). While PTSD is related to a negative post-traumatic psychological response that can lead to maladjustment (Gold et al. 2007), PTG is formed through positive post-traumatic psychological changes that can contribute to improved adjustment to life. A series of studies have focused on the causes, extent, and symptoms of PTSD among people during the COVID-19 pandemic (Goodman et al., 2023; Sun et al. 2023).

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, campus closures and the subsequent transition to remote learning modalities introduced several stressors to the daily lives and study routines of Chinese college students (Von Keyserlingk et al. 2022). Recognizing the significance of disease control and prevention, it is necessary to assist college students in identifying positive psychological experiences as coping mechanisms they have gained from the pandemic and facilitating their psychological recovery as they live with the pandemic (Miao et al. 2021). Psychological recovery is not only reflected by the reduction of negative symptoms but also by increased positive psychological responses. According to Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996), PTG holds the potential to enhance individuals’ comprehension of traumatic occurrences, improve their mental well-being, and empower them to derive resilience from adversity so that they can confront uncertainty with heightened cognitive abilities. Therefore, this study aims to explore the PTG of Chinese college students and its influencing factors during the COVID-19 pandemic. PTG can involve changes in five psychological main dimensions: new possibilities, relating to others, personal strength, spiritual change, and appreciation of life (Tedeschi and Calhoun1996). Among individuals, empathy, gratitude, and mental toughness have been identified as positive predictors of PTG (Cohen and Collens 2013). According to the model of thriving through relationships, social support within groups is a critical factor in promoting positive coping with negative events (Feeney and Collins 2015). Numerous studies have found that people who have experienced traumatic events or are diagnosed with serious illnesses have shown moderate PTG scores. For example, victims of earthquakes have been found to show moderate PTG scores (Xu et al. 2022), and 60–90% of patients who have been diagnosed with serious illnesses including cancer (Casellas-Grau et al. 2017) and AIDS (Rzeszutek and Gruszczyńska 2018) reported experiencing perceived positive growth in response to their illness.

Previous studies have demonstrated that disparate cultural backgrounds and various traumatic event categories can lead to distinct domains of PTG (Capielo Rosario et al. 2020). In contrast to the aforementioned traumatic events, such as personal illnesses and natural disasters, the COVID-19 pandemic introduces distinctive challenges characterized by stringent quarantine and isolation protocols. These measures were implemented in response to persistent and life-threatening risks associated with the disease (Holman and Grisham 2020). Regarding research on COVID-19, 53.8% of the population in China reported that COVID-19 led to severe psychological effects (Wang et al. 2020). Similarly, some studies also found positive changes during COVID-19 (Hyun et al. 2021; Kowalski et al. 2022). Regarding PTG, researchers have demonstrated that social support and family ties are positively associated with PTG (Harwood-Gross et al. 2022; Zhou et al. 2020). However, these studies focused on first-line emergency healthcare workers and COVID-19 patients (Huerne et al., 2023; Dou et al. 2022) and paid limited attention to positive changes and psychological constructs among college students. Although some college students in China suffered from PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic, they also sought effective ways to adapt to trauma and adversity (Chi et al. 2020). Most previous studies have adopted self-report questionnaires to construct and verify PTG models. For instance, one study identified a mediating effect of general self-efficacy on the relationship between PTG and creativity among Chinese college students during the COVID-19 pandemic (Zeng et al. 2021). However, few studies have conducted an exploration of PTG’s constructs and influence factors. As mentioned, people with various social and cultural backgrounds may experience unique aspects of personal growth following their encounters with COVID-19 (Arnout and Al-Sufyani, 2021; Sun et al. 2023). The confluence of these multiple lines of research underscores the positive effects that traumatic events can have on people and that, while there are known measurements that assess the PTG a person has undergone (Tedeschi and Calhoun 1996), an empirical understanding of the specific processes leading to PTG among Chinese college students during COVID-19 pandemic remains lacking. Therefore, a systematic and deep exploration of the PTG model can offer a new perspective to strengthen the psychological adjustment and assistance measures of college students.

This grounded theory design study aims to systematically explore and develop a PTG theory specifically tailored to the cultural context of Chinese universities during the COVID-19 pandemic. This grounded theory will address the central question: “What PTG constructs and facilitators existed among Chinese college students during the COVID-19 epidemic?” Through this investigation, we aim to substantially contribute to the existing literature by elucidating the coping mechanisms employed by Chinese college students during the pandemic. This qualitative inquiry is strategically positioned to furnish evidence-based information, thereby offering valuable insights into developing and strengthening programs and interventions that support and enhance students’ well-being and personal growth.

Methods

Design

The grounded theory method (Glaser et al. 1968) was used to build a model of PTG among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. This method allows for a bottom-up construction of a model or theory based on or grounded in participants’ experiences. Prior to recruitment, ethical approval was obtained from the Department of Psychology and Behavior Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology’s Human Research Ethics Committee, and each participant signed an informed consent form. Moreover, during the interviews, if participants encountered negative emotions or distress, researchers offered suitable support and, if needed, suggested that they seek assistance at the school’s psychological center.

Participants

Study participants were recruited based on the following criteria: having grown and gained during the pandemic, being willing to share their understanding of COVID-19, and how they regarded handling adversity. Study participants signed up voluntarily and based on the purpose of this study, a total of 24 undergraduates and postgraduate students in Zhejiang University of Technology were recruited using posted flyers (see Table 1 for an overview of participants’ individual profiles).

Table 1 Overview of participant profiles.
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Procedures

Before conducting in-depth interviews, researchers selected a university student for a pre-interview. This provided the basis for the outline design of the formal interviews. The interviews were conducted face-to-face and were guided by a schedule and outline that emphasized the interviewees’ positive psychological experiences during the epidemic. The interviews were conducted in quiet places, such as an office, and lasted between 40 and 60 min. The outline of the formal interview (see appendix) focused primarily on four aspects: lifestyle changes during the epidemic, attention to news about it, getting along with others, and thoughts about the outside world and oneself. Typical questions included: “How do you spend a day during the pandemic?” and “Do you see any changes in your life?”. Interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. The average duration of the interviews was 48.6 min.

The data collection period spanned from May to August 2020, students who had experienced gains, growth, and positive insights during the pandemic were invited to participate in interview.. According to the principles of theoretical sampling, the researchers employed an intensity sampling strategy and chose cases that exhibited both high information intensity and variability. The criteria for sample selection hinged upon the potential of each sample to offer novel insights that would aid in the formulation or enhancement of the theory (Flick 2007). At the beginning of the research, the participant number was not pre-determined. The study proceeded until the data were saturated and no new topics were surfacing.

Data analysis

NVivo 12.0 software was used to edit, encode, and statistically construct frequency data. Recorded narratives were individually transcribed verbatim in Chinese and were subjected to open, spindle, and selective coding following the analytical framework of Corbin and Strauss (2007). Preliminarily, during open coding, the focus centered on “PTG,” identifying recurring units of meaning within the data. This involved deconstructing the textual data into distinct nodes or segments based on these units of meaning which could range from individual words to entire sentences. The disassembled nodes were then categorized, ensuring that each node was accompanied by relevant annotations and initial concepts. These then formed the foundational units of analysis (Fu et al. 2020). Four coders conducted the analysis, resulting in 754 reference points and 34 coding nodes. The subsequent stage, spindle coding, involved clarifying and sorting the intrinsic connections between conceptual units derived from open coding. Researchers further refined, modified, and categorized the diverse code numbers around the core issue (Flick 2007). Segments with analogous or related meanings were consolidated, elucidating and organizing the internal connections among the code numbers. This resulted in 10 relevant themes. In the final stage, selective coding, a meticulous examination of the main category led to the identification of a core category with primary explanatory power. Employing a bottom-up approach, researchers progressively constructed the theoretical model through inductive analysis. Selective coding integrated categories to form the initial theoretical framework; thus, providing insights from three dimensions: cognition, behavior, and external influence.

Trustworthiness and authenticity

The researchers utilized various measures to ensure the trustworthiness of the data collection and analysis process. Firstly, to mitigate validity concerns, researchers employed a progressive sampling strategy for data collection and screening in addition to strictly adhering to the principles and procedures of in-depth interviews. Progressive sampling does not adhere to quantitative standards, and the termination of the sampling process is guided by theoretical saturation criterion (Flick 2007). Diligence was applied to ensure that the collected and presented data represented the diversity of the research field.

Secondly, the stress levels of individuals in the aftermath of COVID-19 were explored and significant influences on stress intensity, including gender, age group, and educational attainment, were identified (Nooripour et al. 2024). Thus, when selecting interviewees, researchers aimed to include diverse cases to present ample evidence for describing the distribution of various viewpoints and experiences.

Thirdly, analysis occurred between multiple coders and debriefings ensured unbiased analysis was occurring (Ganson et al. 2023). Additionally, the researchers acknowledged the challenge of maintaining a neutral role in the research field during interactions, observations, or interviews with research subjects (Flick 2007).

Fourthly, the verbatim transcription process increased the dependability and authenticity of the data (Drisko 1997). Additionally, regarding coding content, beyond this study’s participants, three psychology teachers were invited to review both the coding process and results to ensure that the encoded content complied with psychological norms.

Results

Dimensions and influencing factors (coding results) of PTG among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic

An analysis of data in line with grounded theory indicated that the PTG of college students during COVID-19 consisted of four core themes, namely “reflections on the country and society,” “self-awareness changes,” “increased social behavior,” and “lifestyle changes,” each with several subthemes (see Table 2). These core themes were used to construct a four-quadrant model that includes the categories of “cognition,” “behavior,” “outward,” and “inward” (see Fig. 1). Additionally, external factors such as information input and family sentiment were identified as influencing the college students’ PTG during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Table 2 Coding of posttraumatic growth.
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Fig. 1
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PTG model of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Cognition

Reflections on the country and society

One core theme of the COVID-19 college student PTG model was the changes in external cognition which were primarily manifested in their reflections on their country and society. The Chinese government implemented measures aimed at providing psychological and material support to its citizens during the pandemic, and these efforts resulted in heightened levels of trust and recognition among the college students toward their country. This fostered a sense of belonging and pride in being members of this society. The students’ heightened social identity was reflected in their comments about the cultural and social atmosphere of “unity is strength.” For example, one student expressed, “The whole… Chinese people just feel like everyone is working together, it’s all about feeling in line.” (P23). Another student commented on the nationwide efforts to combat the pandemic, stating, “Many provinces across the country have sent people to Wuhan to fight the pandemic. I think that’s one of the most striking things.” (P8).

The COVID-19 pandemic not only increased college students’ sense of national identity and trust but also led to a more rational understanding of social phenomena. They expressed their opinions about environmental protection, public health construction, the interdependence between humanity and the natural world, etc. “You wouldn’t even think of a pandemic happening, and then the pandemic suddenly comes, and you feel like you’re being pulled out of a beautiful dream.” (P12). Simultaneously, the COVID-19 pandemic affected college students through the demonstration of human nature, exemplified by the behavior of healthcare professionals and volunteers, and by rumor-mongers and those who acted with self-interest. “He was trying to be clever, claiming to isolate at home, but he and his whole family actually went to Thailand. Now Thailand is worse off than us, and he definitely won’t make it, he was exposed.” (P10). It is indicated that the attitudes and thought processes of college students regarding society were influenced by the pandemic, which enabled them to develop perspectives that were more holistic and nuanced regarding both the country and society.

Self-awareness changed

At the individual level, COVID-19 also affected college students’ “self-awareness.” As illustrated in Table 1, self-awareness was composed of two factors: “life cognition” and “self-reflection.”

COVID-19 led to college students’ reflection on the meaning and purpose of life. Due to the highly infectious nature of the virus, students were required to remain at home, leading to increased periods of solitude and self-reflection. The COVID-19 pandemic forced individuals to spend more time alone, leading to increased self-reflection. During interviews, some participants stated that they had rethought their priorities and life goals. For instance, one participant said, “I have been contemplating my true values in life and what I genuinely wish to achieve… I believe that the pandemic has given me ample time to ponder these things.” (P5) This personal reflection enabled college students to understand themselves better. Consequently, some made necessary adjustments to achieve personal growth and development. “I feel the need to improve myself.” (P17) Additionally, students were motivated to find their true calling, as one participant (P16) said, “because I want to find my purpose in life.” Furthermore, the pandemic reshaped students’ future planning by recognizing the need for flexibility in planning methods and strategies. “Planning is indispensable, but flexibility is also essential since no one is aware of what the future holds,” said one participant. (P24)

The pandemic has made college students acutely aware of the fragility and impermanence of life, resulting in changes in their attitudes and behaviors toward life. The increasing number of daily confirmed cases and deaths, especially those that were nearby, made students more cautious and attentive. This resulted in actions such as wearing masks and avoiding risky behaviors. As one participant explained, “I treasure life more now. During this pandemic, I have been abstaining from activities that might endanger my life, such as going out without a mask. I feel like I value my life more.” (P10). This increased awareness of the value of life has prompted some college students to prioritize their well-being and the pursuit of happiness, leading them to change their plans and goals. In conclusion, the pandemic led to personal reflection among college students, increasing their awareness of the preciousness of life.

Behavior

Increased pro-social behavior

The pandemic triggered an increase in pro-social behavior, as evidenced by the heroic actions of various individuals, including medical workers, police officers, volunteers, and other professionals who tirelessly worked to ensure the health and safety of others. These selfless acts inspired college students to feel grateful for what they had and appreciate the contributions of others to society. As one participant expressed, “As an average individual, I feel immensely grateful for the tangible and real contributions of these heroic individuals.” (P6). College students, filled with gratitude and admiration for these individuals’ work, displayed an increased willingness to help others during the pandemic. They became volunteers in their communities and displayed a better understanding and appreciation of anti-pandemic personnel.

This caused college students to shift their interpersonal relationships, resulting in more time spent with family and fewer interactions with friends and lovers. Maintaining these relationships during this unique period became crucial to students. Family, in particular, played a significant role in their interpersonal dynamics as the home quarantine period resulted in more intimate and close relationships with family members, as expressed by one participant. “Spending an extended period with my family made me feel that our relationships became more intimate and closer. Such a long holiday was unprecedented.” (P8) Due to the limited physical interactions among friends and lovers, college students re-evaluated their social connections and began to prioritize interactions with those they genuinely valued, while reducing interactions with casual acquaintances. Furthermore, students re-evaluated their expectations and roles in romantic relationships. This led to new ways of maintaining emotional connections. Some participants even reported improved relationships with their partners during this period. These changed attitudes toward different interpersonal relationship types can be useful for adapting to future social situations.

Lifestyle changes

At the behavioral level, college students’ “coping style” and “states of life” were influenced by the pandemic. The lockdown restrictions forced students into new lifestyles, which differed significantly from their campus lives. Firstly, students began to appreciate solitude and used it as an opportunity for self-reflection as they had more personal space to communicate with themselves than usual. As expressed by one participant, “During the pandemic, I appreciated the increased personal space… you have much more time to communicate with yourself than usual.” (P4). Secondly, students became more attentive to hygiene due to the contagious nature of COVID-19, with participants emphasizing the importance of regular hand washing, alcohol spraying, and disinfecting. These precautions became habits that students implemented to safeguard their health. Thirdly, college students recognized the importance of a healthy daily routine and strived to establish consistency in their sleep routines. As expressed by one interviewee: “I haven’t had such good habits for many years…” (P1). Fourthly, students became more aware of the importance of self-discipline and implemented it by reducing distractions such as excessive phone usage. As stated, “Because I’m too lazy and my attention isn’t focused, I feel like I haven’t done anything. Putting my phone away is quite important.” (P24).

Undeniably, the pandemic lockdown presented challenges, negative emotions, and social isolation for college students. To overcome these challenges, many students utilized effective emotional management strategies. Some students engaged in exercise, not only for physical health but also as an outlet to release their emotions. Others used their free time to develop new skills and interests and form connections with other people. Alongside the extended break, the pandemic also modified the study modes and industry prospects of college students. Despite this, some viewed the pandemic as an opportunity for personal growth, providing a conducive environment for recovery and self-improvement. As a participant shared: “In a way, the pandemic was beneficial because I had surgery at the end of the last semester, so during the pandemic I couldn’t go out to recover, thus, it was the perfect time for me.” (P1).

Factors influencing PTG

This study proposed four PTG dimensions among college students which were influenced by the external factors “information input” and “patriotic sentiment.” Although college students may not have directly experienced the COVID-19 pandemic in the same way as frontline medical workers, their behavior and attitudes were affected by news, regulations, and policies related to the pandemic, thus transcending temporal and spatial barriers. Additionally, the pandemic highlighted the subtle impact of traditional Chinese cultural values, such as patriotism, on the cognition and behavior of college students. As such, this study aimed to comprehensively examine the various dimensions of PTG in college students and the factors that influenced them. Figure 2 summarizes the findings of the study and presents a model of the proposed relationships between the variables.

Fig. 2
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A process theory of factors influencing college students’ Posttraumatic Growth.

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Information input

The primary way most college students engaged with the pandemic was by staying informed through the internet about the latest information and frontline developments. As such, their attitudes and perceptions toward “information” played a significant role in their psychological development.

College students possess a great ability to process information, and during the pandemic they received large quantities of epidemic-related information from both official media outlets and self-made media. Information with different emotional connotations had varying effects on their cognition and behavior. Positive information reinforced their positive emotions toward their country and pandemic-fighting personnel, while also fostering their social awareness. Some students expressed their confidence in their country’s ability to handle the pandemic effectively and chose to focus on positive aspects. However, students inevitably encountered negative information during the pandemic which often elicited empathy and emotional distress, leading them to reconsider their perceptions regarding the “limitations” and “fragility” of life. Consequently, they began focusing more on the present moment and became more cautious and discerning in their consumption of information.

Witnessing the struggles and dedication of frontline medical workers and the selfless cooperation of those around them instilled gratitude, empathy, and a greater willingness to help others in college students. As a result, they were better recognized as integral members of society from a behavioral perspective. In addition to these benefits, some students were also motivated to broaden their skills and interests through access to information inputs such as cooking videos and gaming videos. Through these resources, they learned and emulated new things.

Patriotic sentiment

The concept of “Patriotic sentiment” embodies unity between family and country, community awareness, and benevolence. These concepts served as the building blocks for the psychological development of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic and have subtly influenced changes in their cognition and behavior.

College students’ comprehension and contemplation of their country and society were established based on their patriotism. China demonstrated resilience and unwavering determination in overcoming disasters, shaping the nation’s essence. College students, growing up under the influence of Chinese culture, possessed a deep understanding of their country’s history from a young age. As one student explained, “I think this is because we were born and raised in this country, so we possess that kind of sentiment. Therefore, I believe that the country should be held in high regard.” (P17) Moreover, patriotism also emphasizes personal cultivation, which is crucial for the family and governance of the world according to Confucianism. The COVID-19 pandemic gave college students additional time to focus on self-improvement and gain a deeper understanding of themselves. As one student explained, this process helped him become braver and more confident in pursuing his aspirations.

Patriotism was demonstrated through acknowledging, encountering, and confronting significant calamities, such as the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008, and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019. These events not only profoundly impacted individuals, but they also provided opportunities for education and personal growth. As one interviewer noted, “You will feel that… all Chinese people feel like they are on the same page, just like that feeling during the war of resistance against Japan. The patriotic sentiment and faith are all mobilized.” (P23). The historical significance and the significance of the country continued to influence college students profoundly. Some prioritized their duty as party members and engaged in volunteer work for community epidemic prevention, while others expressed their desire to become doctors. These actions reflect patriotism as “cultivating oneself, managing a family, governing the country, and bringing peace to the world.”

The correlation between cognition and behavior

Changes in cognitive processes associated with contemplating the country and society can lead to increased socialization and a greater willingness to help others. According to Participant 8, if given another chance, he would choose to become a doctor as it would enable him to make a significant contribution to others, particularly in times of crisis like the current pandemic in which doctors play vital roles in saving lives. Changes in self-awareness can also result in lifestyle changes such as increased alertness towards health and hygiene habits. For example, Participant 10 described implementing various epidemic prevention measures, including leaving shoes outside the door or wearing a mask. These reflected a heightened sense of caution and awareness toward potential risks.

Discussion

This study utilizes a grounded theory methodology to elucidate the constructs and facilitators of PTG among Chinese college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the findings underscore a unique PTG model based on 24 participants who experienced positive growth. Specifically, the theory was underpinned by four interconnected core themes: reflections on the country and society, self-awareness changes, increased social behavior, and lifestyle modifications. Each theme has several subthemes that delineate positive growth in both cognitional and behavioral levels. The proposed theoretical model suggests that, despite the challenging and traumatic circumstances brought about by COVID-19, many aspects of growth among college students could be observed. This underscores the adaptability and resilience of college students. Additionally, the findings highlight the impact of cultural and environmental factors on shaping the direction and strength of individuals’ PTG during the COVID-19 pandemic, with specific attention given to the significant influences of patriotism and information input. Finally, the results validate the multifaceted constructs of PTG and provide several viable intervention strategies for improving college students’ PTG to help them cope with COVID-19-related trauma.

The present study examines the multi-dimensional dynamic process of fostering PTG in Chinese college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the PTG model proposed by Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004), traumatic events change an individual’s worldview. PTG, as conceptualized within this framework, emerges as an outcome through the process of reconstructing and integrating cognitive evaluations of traumatic occurrences. Specifically, the present results demonstrate that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced college students’ reflections on the country and society and changes in self-awareness, social behavior, and lifestyle at both cognitional and behavioral levels. These findings align with Baseotto et al.’s (2022) research, indicating that the cognitive assessment of PTG may induce introspection, thereby leading individuals to reevaluate and realign their lifestyles with their core values. Consequently, this cognitive process has the potential to elicit changes in both behavior and thought patterns. As Jordan (2000) stated, “Even the smallest joys in life took on a special meaning” (p. 216). In interviews, college students typically reported that the COVID-19 pandemic was a significant transformative event that had profoundly influenced their daily lives. Furthermore, during traumatic experiences, when one is vulnerable as never before, there is a sense of strength (Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004). From a developmental standpoint, negative encounters can intricately shape cognitive and behavioral frameworks in individuals. Consequently, college students became aware of their vulnerabilities, and now better comprehend the present by reflecting on the fragility and limitations of life. In response, they actively engage in cognitive restructuring and adopt novel behavioral strategies, illustrating a deliberate effort to construct new cognitive frameworks and behavioral systems.

Secondly, the current study’s core theme, “increased social behavior,” is supported by a large body of evidence that demonstrates the positive outcomes of closer relationships with others and increased love for neighbors and society following negative events such as trauma (Luo et al. 2022). According to the model of thriving through relationships, close and caring interpersonal connections can enhance individuals’ support and facilitate their active coping with trauma-related events (Feeney and Collins 2015). Dou et al. (2022) found that higher levels of social support were associated with higher levels of PTG, thereby affirming social support’s importance as an environmental resource that helps individuals flourish. Notably, different social support sources may influence psychological adaptation differently (Birch 1998), including that of families, teachers, and peers (Fu and Zhou 2022). Unlike previous studies focused on specific social behavior types, the present study systematically explores this concept from a multi-leveled perspective and classifies it into sub-themes of “family relationships,” “friendship,” and “romantic relationships,” all of which represent behaviors and symbols of human socialization.

In the current study, two dimensions are proposed which expand on existing theoretical PTG models: “reflections on the country and society”, and “lifestyle modifications”. During COVID-19, the current study found that college students’ social support can occur at both the micro levels (e.g., family member assistance) and macro levels (e.g., policy support) of society, which was consistent with previous research (Colvin et al. 2002). Sibley et al. (2020) indicated that the nation’s prompt and favorable response to the challenges posed by COVID-19 potentially heightened citizens’ feelings of belonging and trust in the government. Vázquez et al. (2008) found that people could experience PTG at the social level in ways such as increased national cohesion, heightened patriotism, and increased confidence in governmental decisions. These findings align with those of Capielo Rosario et al. (2020), who posited that collective trauma strengthens national identity. Consequently, in the context of the present study, the perceived macro social support played an irreplaceable role in coping with the trauma associated with COVID-19. Specifically, 75% of college students articulated a profound sense of identification and pride in their nation. This underscores the pivotal role that perceived social support on a macro societal level plays in mitigating the psychological impact of the pandemic. Additionally, the current study’s results revealed that these college students acted according to the promoted new social norms (e.g., wearing masks when going out, washing hands frequently, and maintaining social distance) during the COVID-19 pandemic, significantly contributing to disease control and prevention. Related studies have indicated that collectivism positively affected psychological responses during the COVID-19 pandemic (Germani et al. 2020; Dong et al. 2022). Collectivists believe that they have a responsibility to society and try to adapt to external changes, such as complying with pandemic prevention regulations. Moreover, individuals with collectivist tendencies are more responsible and feel stronger social connections and support (Kim et al. 2016). Therefore, it is indicated that Chinese college students’ belief systems, influenced by collectivism, were not undermined but rather facilitated during the COVID-19 epidemic. Thus, the students’ self-identification and national pride were strengthened as they perceived the collective power and efficacy of public participation (Koch 2013).

Cognitive changes are also influenced by information input. Because of a series of measures (e.g., testing, quarantining, and community containment) adopted by the Chinese government to curb the spread of the pandemic, Chinese college students under home quarantine had more free time, leading them to focus more on COVID-19-related news. Previous research has established that network information can impact individuals’ attitudes, perceptions, motivations, or beliefs toward the environment in a one-way causal relationship (Cho, 2004; Kahneman 2003). Moreover, individuals’ attention to media accounts and information content also affects their levels of political trust (Park et al. n.d.). COVID-19 was a global health emergency, and the current study reveals that college students paid more attention to social issues. Furthermore, during the initial stage of the COVID-19 pandemic, misleading rumors, corona-phobia, and conspiracy theories about its origin circulated throughout the globe, negatively influencing individuals’ well-being and their reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic (Depoux et al. 2020). Yet, these college students tended to analyze the positive and negative impacts of COVID-19 objectively and rationally, resulting in positive growth of their emotional and rational understanding. This information processing style could be explained by the concept of deliberate rumination, denoting an individual’s active re-examination of traumatic events and associated information. During the COVID-19 pandemic, deliberate rumination prompted individuals to actively reflect on and reassess cognitive processes and thought patterns. This leads to the selection of a more harmonious worldview and lifestyle and a shift in personal focus toward positive aspects (Joseph and Linley 2005). Previous studies have revealed a significant positive correlation between deliberate rumination and PTG (Xu et al. 2019). Therefore, despite confronting stressful events, the present study indicates that college students embraced a purposeful cognitive process and metacognition, thereby fostering their potential to attain PTG (Rider Mundey et al. 2018).

The present study also found that college students experienced changes in their lifestyles. The “lifestyle change” theme included sub-themes such as changes in living habits, behavior patterns, and coping strategies. For the changes in lifestyle, COVID-19 prevention and control measures, such as school suspension, social separation, and activity restrictions, significantly affected people’s daily lives (National Public Radio 2020). Previous research has also indicated that although traumatic events may threaten individual goals and beliefs, they also serve as catalysts for the reevaluation and reconstruction of the meaning of life and the formulation of revised life philosophies (Zhai et al. 2010). This is consistent with the findings of the present study that college students tried to write or communicate with others to express themselves, and through behavior changes, obtained social support or explored suitable coping strategies. Specifically, when describing their living situations, the current findings revealed that college students often associated emotional adjustments with the need for “emotional management.” Consequently, individuals in this study who had experienced PTG exhibited a more objective and optimistic perspective regarding the traumatic events and inherent challenges of their daily lives. This favorable emotional disposition significantly contributes to the facilitation of individuals’ personal development (Han et al. 2019). Furthermore, the present results also demonstrated the effectiveness of physical sports activities as a strategy to regulate mood and improve well-being, which was also noted by Rodríguez-Bravo et al. (2020). These authors found that young people who perform sports activities have higher overall levels of psychological well-being. Similar to the observations of Paterson and Park (2023), participants in the present study stated that the experience of home quarantine during the pandemic allowed them to be more mindful and engage with meaningful introspection. Nooripour et al. (2022) also demonstrated that the practice of mindfulness exerted a notable positive influence on the resilience of Iranian students in the face of challenges posed by COVID-19. This process of introspection is an essential aspect of personal growth and development. Additionally, some college students developed their skills and expertise in hobbies during this period. This included cooking, gardening, or learning a new language, which can provide a sense of accomplishment and improve mental well-being (Feeney and Collins 2015; Qin et al. 2023).

Limitations and future research

Several limitations must be acknowledged to appropriately contextualize the findings generated by this study. While this exploratory grounded theory study investigates the specifics of PTG experienced by college students during COVID-19, primarily, the interviews were conducted one year into the implementation of COVID-19 restrictions and prompted participants to self-report their positive experiences. This potentially increased the risk of recall and reporting biases. Additionally, the study’s sample was exclusively composed of college students. The researchers advocate for a more extensive participant pool, encompassing diverse demographics, including, but not limited to, older age groups and other populations, while also advocating for cross-cultural comparisons to enrich the generalizability of the findings. Secondly, the study adopted a confined time frame, limiting its ability to capture dynamic change processes comprehensively. Given the ongoing evolution of the COVID-19 landscapes, the psychology and behavior of college students are subject to continuous transformation. Consequently, future research should engage in longitudinal analyses to meticulously examine the developmental trajectory of PTG over time. Thirdly, the team had first-hand insight and personal experience to help interrogate and analyze the participants’ experiences. However, while the study employed four researchers to code the text, there remains the inherent challenge of low external validity. Finally, participants may experience initial discomfort related to the self-disclosure of their positive experiences and there may be a social expectation effect in which subjects attempt to maintain a positive impression and adhere to social expectations during their interviews.

Additionally, this study provides several theoretical and practical implications. Firstly, this study proposes a model of Chinese college students’ PTG during the COVID-19 pandemic, thereby contextualizing and enriching the existing positive psychology literature. Unlike previous research that predominantly focused on the adverse consequences of COVID-19, this study examines the often-overlooked positive experiences associated with epidemics. Consequently, it aligns with the increasing call for a comprehensive exploration of PTG after the COVID-19 outbreak and offers a configurational model grounded in theory. Future qualitative research encompassing diverse groups and international samples can extend the generalizability of the model’s dimensions. Additionally, a longitudinal approach, involving a follow-up study with the same participants, could assess the sustainability of the PTG process. In a practical sense, this study has described PTG constructs and facilitators, presenting an opportunity for universities to shape positive psychological counseling services. By understanding the PTG dynamics, educational institutions can implement effective measures following traumatic events experienced by students. Notably, external factors, such as “information input” identified in this study, play pivotal roles in the initial stages of the cognitive process. Consequently, psychological counseling services should discern and evaluate the impacts of these factors on individuals’ psychological states. Such services can assist students in reconstructing their perceptions of adversity, fostering positive self-beliefs, and thereby promoting the PTG process.