Introduction

As outlined by UNESCO in 2003, intangible cultural heritage (ICH) includes cultural practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills passed down through generations as part of various ethnic groups’ traditions. ICH manifests in diverse forms within the tourism industry, encompassing tangible products, such as travel souvenirs and traditional food, as well as intangible services, including art performances and cultural festivals (Yang et al. 2021; Yang, Luo, et al. 2022; Yang, Tang, et al. 2022; Guo et al. 2023; Yan et al. 2024). The growth of a well-developed ICH tourism sector aids in preserving ICH and also creates new economic opportunities within the tourism industry. With the emergence of the experience economy, ICH tourism has evolved from its traditional forms into a markedly personalised and experiential approach. To remain competitive, stakeholders in the tourism sector increasingly recognise the value of using cultural celebrities as a resource to promote ICH tourism and provide visitors with distinctive experiences. Allowing tourists access to spaces associated with cultural celebrities fosters opportunities for meaningful interactions, enhancing their overall travel experiences (Kim, Park, et al. 2019). Additionally, cultural celebrities play a key role in the marketing of souvenirs, promoting their own creations and other associated products (Zhang et al. 2022). Note that local cultural celebrities have the potential to attain global recognition, thereby propagating awareness of the ICH they represent on a global scale (Luo 2022). Cultural celebrities have demonstrated their enduring influence, capable of yielding a more profound and enduring impact on culture, education, economics and tourism than entertainment celebrities (Gao et al. 2022). Nonetheless, Chen et al. (2021) underscored that tourism products and services associated with cultural celebrities may be custom-tailored to cater to the distinct preferences and requirements of tourists. That is, the endorsement of cultural celebrities in tourism marketing resonates primarily within a specific target demographic. Consequently, a thorough examination of the attributes of these demographic segments will enhance the efficacy of cultural celebrity-driven tourism initiatives.

Match-up theory has been considered a theoretical basis for the assessment of the efficacy of celebrity endorsements. In marketing research, a key idea of match-up theory is consumer-to-celebrity and product-to-celebrity congruence (Choi et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2020). However, in ICH tourism research, established studies have mainly focused on exploring the factors influencing product–celebrity congruence (Kim et al. 2014; Park et al. 2015; Yang, Zhang, et al. 2022), whilst research addressing the factors influencing customer–celebrity congruence has been limited. According to generativity theory, generativity as a personal value orientation can be a reliable indicator of intergenerational sustainability because it measures people’s concern for the next generation (Lawford et al. 2005; Timilsina et al. 2019). The general expectation of society is that cultural celebrities can contribute to the world and pass on their experiences, knowledge and wisdom to the next generation; thus, generativity is likely to reflect and be consistent with cultural celebrities’ responsibility (Pearce 2000). Furthermore, celebrity involvement is crucial to successful celebrity endorsements (Yang 2018). Therefore, the current study fills in the match-up theory gap in ICH tourism by investigating the relationship between tourists’ generativity and the celebrity involvement of cultural celebrities.

Given the multifaceted nature of ICH tourism, which encompasses various stakeholders, including cultural celebrities, marketers and tourists, a broad theoretical framework is needed to consider the differing perspectives (Su, Li, et al. 2020; Guo et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2024). From marketers’ point of view, commodity theory is utilised to explore how the perceived scarcity of ICH products, shaped by marketing strategies, influences tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty. This theory explains that intangible goods shape consumer behaviour differently from tangible products (Chen et al. 2014). Past research has mainly viewed ICH products as tangible goods, but the current study focuses on their intangible features and how scarcity affects consumer behaviour. The value-attitude-behaviour (VAB) model, considered from the tourists’ perspective, acts as a bridge between commodity theory and match-up theory. Generativity is one of the important personal values shaping how tourists engage with ICH products. Numerous studies on the VAB model have focused only on pre-consumption stages (Luo and Ye 2020; Pan et al. 2022). The present study combines the attitudinal variable during consumption (satisfaction) with the behavioural variable after consumption (loyalty) to assess tourists’ attitudes and behaviours in the context of ICH tourism across the pre-, mid- and post-consumption stages.

The following research aims are based on the practical needs of ICH tourism promotion and the existing theoretical gaps:

(a) To fill in the gap in match-up theory with celebrity research by exploring the relationship between tourists’ generativity and celebrity involvement originating from ICH cultural celebrities,

(b) To fill the gap in commodity theory with ICH tourism research by exploring the impact of generativity and celebrity involvement on the perceived scarcity of ICH tourism products via the marketing of intangible commodities,

(c) To enhance the comprehension of consumer behaviour in ICH tourism through an examination of the interaction pathways within the VAB model, particularly involving match-up and commodity theories and

(d) To offer practical recommendations for enhancing the efficacy of ICH tourism promotion by cultural celebrities and ICH tourism operators.

Literature Review

Generativity and VAB Model

In the traditional view of midlife adults, the ability of generativity is regarded as an essential aspect of their personalities, defined as a desire to care and be concerned for the next generation (Lawford et al. 2005). Generativity reveals that, with age, people become more mindful of their mortality and the need to ensure a better future for younger generations (Gruenewald et al. 2012). Generativity ensures that unique cultural heritage is preserved and passed on to future generations, helping them to develop their unique identity. Consequently, research on generativity related to cultural heritage has focused on knowledge sharing, heritage tourism and museum participation (Luo and Ren 2020; Luo and Ye 2020; Lee et al. 2022; Wu et al. 2023). However, ICH tourism participation research has been limited.

Marketing and tourism research has commonly utilised the VAB model to examine the behavioural intentions of ICH tourism. The VAB model in its original formulation posits that values influence specific behaviours via attitudes towards behaviours (Homer et al. 1988). The critical antecedent in the VAB analysis is value, which ICH scholars have often viewed from two perspectives. The first perspective is the recognition of ICH’s value by various stakeholders. This concept of tangible value perception is derived from commodity value. This value, as a desirable criterion to guide individuals’ decisions and behaviour, refers to a fundamental standard customers use when making purchase decisions (Jun et al. 2014). The general public and tourists emphasise ICH’s aesthetic and practical value (Pan et al. 2016; Kurin 2018).

However, from the indigenous ontological perspective, the intangible values of ICH must be taken seriously because local ecological systems have cultural, spiritual and even religious significance beyond their biophysical characteristics (Manero et al. 2022). Consequently, another research perspective of ICH values is defined as a morally preferable, responsible individuals’ persistent belief in a particular behaviour or mode of conduct towards ICH (Rokeach 1973). For example, altruistic value refers to satisfaction from helping indigenous peoples and preserving their cultural heritage (Rolfe et al. 2003). Such intangible values are often assessed through the region, society, culture and moral benefit associated with specific ICH, such as place identity, national identity, cultural identity, social value and altruistic value (Yang et al. 2021; Choo et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022). Generativity is empirically characterised by social value orientation (Timilsina et al. 2019). According to the total economic value framework proposed by Segerson (2017), the benefit to the future generation can be classified as bequest value, which falls under the non-use value category in non-market valuation. However, generativity as an inherent human value, representing care for the next generation, is rarely discussed in the ICH domain.

To investigate personal consumption behaviour thoroughly, scholars have developed the VAB model with two different outcomes, namely, behavioural intentions (Luo and Ye 2020) and behaviour (Kim and Stepchenkova 2019; Luo and Ren 2020; Yang et al. 2021), which predict pre-consumption behaviour intentions and post-consumption actions, respectively. Positive behaviours, especially loyalty, can significantly impact ICHs’ long-term viability and competitiveness (Yang et al. 2021). Considering that satisfaction can indicate customer attitudes towards products and is a predictor of loyalty behaviour (Prajitmutita et al. 2016), the current study incorporates satisfaction and loyalty behaviour into the VAB models.

Two hypotheses are formulated as a result of the preceding discussion:

H1: Generativity is anticipated to have a positive effect on satisfaction.

H2: Satisfaction is anticipated to have a positive effect on loyalty behaviour.

Celebrity Involvement and Match-up Theory

Celebrities have been described as ‘intimate strangers’, whose accomplishments are widely publicised without them present (Schickel 1985). Given that celebrity fascination can be transferred to celebrity-related items, tourists’ involvement with celebrities creates a sense of familiarity with the related destinations, attractions, activities and tourism products (Lee et al. 2008). In celebrity-induced tourism, scholars have focused on the rationale behind the celebrity endorsement effect generated by different types of celebrities. As endorsers, sports or movie stars generate energy at the source of information, affecting preferences and meaning of product-related information and ultimately influencing the acceptance of products by consumers (Babin et al. 2016). Some heritage tourism operators carefully preserve records of celebrity visits to build a culturally influential brand and show off their precious cultural capital (Chen et al. 2017). Internet celebrities on online platforms can help tourism products or brands reach a fragmented audience and niche market through social media rather than broadcast media (Brooks et al. 2021; Wu, Tong, et al. 2021). Although sports and entertainment stars may have a significant appeal to tourism marketers, some academics caution that other celebrities may appeal differently to the general public. Literary celebrities’ knowledge of destinations and their cultures should be emphasised because their related tourism products and services may be tailored to meet tourists’ specific needs and tastes, thereby extending beyond favourable appearance (Chen et al. 2021). Frequent visits by political celebrities can bring an unusual celebrity endorsement effect to China’s red tourism, leading to local governments and residents becoming powerless stakeholders (Zhao et al. 2015). Historical and cultural celebrities have withstood the test of time and often exerted a more enduring cultural, educational and economic influence, as well as a more profound impact on tourism, compared with modern celebrities (Gao et al. 2022).

In practice, ICH inheritors are a non-entertainment cultural celebrity resource. As significant stakeholders in the ICH domain, they are more willing to promote ICH tourism than any other celebrity. In the 2003 ICH safeguarding convention, UNESCO stated that ICH inheritors are the primary carriers of their related ICH. Research at this stage has identified two main reasons for the ability of ICH inheritors to become celebrities and create a celebrity endorsement effect. Firstly, ICH inheritors are already world-renowned celebrities of traditional arts and have a heavy role in nurturing cultural heritage and shaping the tourism competitiveness of their respective cities. For example, leveraging the influence of Cantonese opera celebrities could enhance the promotion of Cantonese opera as a tourism asset in the Greater Bay Area (Luo 2022). Secondly, given the government’s commitment to ICH conservation and the development of ICH tourism, an increasing number of people are becoming aware of the inheritors. The inheritors have received numerous awards and have been widely featured in the media, leading to public recognition and the opportunity to participate in decisions on cultural heritage domains (Su, Wall, et al. 2020). However, research on the celebrity endorsement effect of ICH inheritors has been minimal, and the impact of such celebrity endorsements on tourists involved in ICH tourism is still unknown.

An opportunity to meet celebrities generates precious memories whilst addressing the shifting paradigm towards an experience-centric economy. Consequently, current research focuses on the role of the heir’s participatory behaviour in facilitating the marketing process of tourism products. Balmer et al. (2016) showed that Tong Ren Tang’s enduring reputation as a corporate heritage brand and celebrity status is deeply imprinted in the national consciousness, contributing to the fact that Tong Ren Tang, as the ICH inheritor of Chinese traditional medicine, has become an essential corporate heritage tourism brand and attraction. Guo et al. (2022) found that the immersive narrative experience will enable tourists to achieve self-congruity with the ICH narrators and encourage them to purchase ICH products following the experience, thereby explaining the tendency for retailers to select outstanding ICH inheritors in tourism destinations to serve as ICH narrators. Guo et al. (2023) indicated that ICH souvenir retailers should encourage ICH inheritors to endorse their products and creations because tourists’ purchase intentions and perceived authenticity are positively correlated with the consistency of ICH inheritors with souvenirs. However, minimal research has been conducted to explore the factors influencing celebrity endorsements of ICH inheritors. Accordingly, discovering this factor is essential to make ICH inheritors’ endorsements markedly effective and to design a targeted marketing strategy.

We are inspired by existing research and consider that match-up theory can be the fundamental theory to determine the factors influencing celebrity endorsements generated by ICH inheritors. Match-up theory demonstrates that celebrity endorsement is most effective when endorsers and products consistently match, and tourism products are no exception to this rule (Zhang et al. 2020). Many of the factors influencing the ‘match-up’ between celebrities and tourism products have been explored, such as image congruence (Yang, Zhang, et al. 2022), value congruence (Kim et al. 2014), altruistic motive congruence (Park et al. 2015) and product source congruence (Guo et al. 2023). However, the advancement of match-up theory research in marketing has resulted in the congruent relationship between celebrities and consumers becoming a significant factor that cannot be disregarded. An explanatory model of celebrity endorser effects incorporating consumer congruence with celebrity image has been demonstrated to effectively explain the impact of celebrity endorsement (Choi et al. 2012). In tourism, only nationality consistency between entertainment celebrities and tourists has been discussed; other factors related to them need to be further discussed (Liu et al. 2023). According to Pearce (2000), inheritors of ICH should serve human civilisation by adapting traditional culture to the current system rather than simply inheriting a typical inheritance. That is, sense of mission and responsibility provides inheritors with an inherent sense of personal generativity value. Therefore, generativity consistency can drive the match-up of tourists and inheritors, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of inheritors’ celebrity endorsement.

Celebrity involvement has been proven to be one of the critical traits of practical celebrity endorsement (Yang 2018). Celebrity involvement in tourism has been demonstrated to affect attitudes towards destinations and tourism products (Yen and Croy 2013). In this case, celebrity involvement with ICH inheritors may enhance ICH tourism satisfaction. According to previous studies showing that celebrity involvement influences visit intention, recommendation behaviour and revisit behaviour (Lee et al. 2008; Yen and Teng 2013; Zhu et al. 2022), celebrity involvement has also impacted loyalty behaviour.

Three hypotheses are formulated in light of the preceding discussion:

H3: Generativity is anticipated to have a positive effect on celebrity involvement.

H4: Celebrity involvement is anticipated to have a positive effect on satisfaction.

H5: Celebrity involvement is anticipated to have a positive effect on loyalty behaviour.

Perceived scarcity and commodity theory

Social psychology states that a scarce commodity is perceived as more valuable than readily available (Gierl et al. 2010). The scarcity principle implies that ‘what is scarce is good’ (Dijksterhuis et al. 2005). Commodity theory is an accepted method of explaining the aforementioned psychological phenomenon surrounding scarcity in marketing research because its primary principle proposes that a commodity’s value will be determined by its unavailability (Lynn 1991).

Previous research has suggested that perceived scarcity is shaped by subjective reasons arising from the internal psychology of individuals and by the objective reasons arising from realistic resource constraints (Wicker et al. 2021). The most significant subjective scarcity stems from personal values and consumption motivation. Under conditions of scarcity, consumers show different patterns of response based on their motivations for gaining knowledge (Suri et al. 2007). Meanwhile, consumers’ personal values reflect their motivation. Particularly, hedonistic consumers prefer conspicuous consumption, in which commodities symbolise status and express conformity to exclusive social groups (Gierl et al. 2010). The situation is similar to that of the consumption of art and cultural products. Consumers’ perceived scarcity of artwork can only be formed if they already have preliminary knowledge of the artwork beforehand (Lynn 1989). In ICH tourism, tourists who identify more strongly with a culture are likelier to believe that they belong to a particular cultural group, accentuating the perceived scarcity of products associated with that culture (Zhang et al. 2022). ICH tourists’ ascribed responsibilities are positively correlated with their personal norms (Hsu et al. 2022). No research has been conducted on the relationship between generativity and perceived scarcity in the ICH context. However, individuals with high levels of generativity, who belong to a group concerned about the next generation and responsible for preserving ICH, are expected to develop a considerably strong appreciation and scarcity of ICH. Meanwhile, they will readily absorb substantial information on ICH, enabling them to pass along their intangible personal legacy. Hence, generativity affects tourists’ perception of scarcity towards ICH.

For the objective perception of scarcity, the realistic resource limitation caused by celebrity endorsement is considered an important aspect that cannot be disregarded. Firstly, marketing tools create such a scarcity. The limited quantity of products with luxury packages, celebrity endorsements and massive advertisements enhance the perception of uniqueness and scarcity (Aggarwal et al. 2011). Secondly, the scarcity of celebrity resources is also an objective fact. Fascination with celebrated people has long existed amongst humans. According to Shapiro et al. (2017), an increase in attendance can be attributed to star players’ final years of competition. Indexical items, which have a direct connection to celebrities, had a greater expected scarcity and significantly more value after the death of stars (Radford et al. 2012). Similarly, ICH inheritors with many valuable skills and experience face scarcity owing to aging or death, particularly if the current generation no longer inherits their crafts and expertise (Tan et al. 2019). Consequently, individuals with strong emotional attachments to ICH inheritors are expected to have a strongly perceived scarcity towards ICH. As a result of the preceding discussion, two hypotheses are formulated:

H6: Generativity is anticipated to have a positive effect on perceived scarcity.

H7: Celebrity involvement is anticipated to have a positive effect on perceived scarcity.

Scarce or inaccessible commodities are more appealing to consumers than abundant and accessible ones (Cialdini 2002). Previous studies have verified that perceived scarcity impacts consumers’ attitudes, emotions and behavioural intentions. Amaldoss et al. (2005) verified that consumers could be markedly satisfied by scarcity in the long run, particularly if they require uniqueness amongst the general public and conformity within prestigious groups. Kaur et al. (2022) confirmed that scarcity could create a positive attitude and increase purchase intention towards organic food products. Similar results have been proven in different product contexts, such as luxury goods (Rosendo-Rios et al. 2023), e-commerce (Chen et al. 2022) and ICH products (Zhang et al. 2022). Our study focuses on ICH’s intangible commodity properties because commodities are regarded as experiences or objects with intangible and tangible properties. This focus is in contrast to previous studies. In light of the preceding discussion, two hypotheses are formulated:

H8: Perceived scarcity is anticipated to have a positive effect on satisfaction.

H9: Perceived scarcity is anticipated to have a positive effect on loyalty behaviour.

This study uses the preceding analysis in applying the VAB model, match-up theory and commodity theory to explore tourist behaviour in ICH tourism. The three frameworks represent the perspectives of tourists, cultural celebrities and marketers. Commodity theory explains how the perceived scarcity of ICH products impacts tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty. The scarcity principle encourages tourists to engage deeply with these cultural experiences. Match-up theory shows how the alignment between cultural celebrities and tourists’ values improves marketing. This alignment creates considerably strong connections between tourists and cultural heritage. The VAB model connects the two theories by linking tourists’ personal values to their attitudes and behaviours. This model focuses on emotional and value-based decisions rather than purely rational ones. The theoretical framework of this study is shown in Fig. 1 and is based on H1–H9.

Fig. 1
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Theoretical Framework.

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Research Methods

Study site

This study focuses on the intangible commodity attributes of ICH and the influence of various stakeholders on tourist behaviour in ICH tourism. Cantonese opera in Guangzhou was chosen as a study site owing to its well-established network of stakeholders, including tourists, cultural celebrities and numerous market operators. As a traditional performing art from Guangdong Province, China, Cantonese opera was designated a World Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2009. Its rich history includes famous artists, such as Hung Sin Nui (红线女), Yam Kim Fai (任剑辉) and Pak Suet Sin (白雪仙), who have performed worldwide and attracted large audiences to their live shows, thereby establishing a strong cultural celebrity effect. Presently, this tradition is continued by new-generation artists, including Zeng Xiao Min (曾小敏), who bring modern ideas to the art by incorporating it into films (Luo et al. 2025). Cantonese opera inheritors are widely recognised, forming a solid foundation for cultural celebrity endorsement.

Beyond cultural celebrities, Cantonese opera is also supported by numerous market operators actively involved in its promotion. Such institutions as the Guangzhou Cantonese Opera Theatre and Guangdong Provincial Cantonese Opera Theatre, along with commercial theatres, opera centres and cultural parks, provide regular public performances in Guangzhou. Furthermore, Cantonese opera is promoted through various media platforms, cultural events and festivals, all organised by market operators, who play a crucial role in ensuring the continued accessibility and visibility of the art form. The Cantonese Opera Art Museum in Guangzhou also serves as a key venue, offering live performances and attracting local and international tourists (Luo 2022). Through this comprehensive network of market operators, Cantonese opera remains a dynamic and thriving cultural experience.

Data collection

A quantitative survey collected information on tourists’ demographics and ICH tourism perceptions of Cantonese opera in Guangzhou. Survey participants were confined to Cantonese opera-knowledgeable tourists. Three filtered questions were used to ensure that the respondents met the requirements: (1) Are you a tourist? (2) Have you seen a live Cantonese opera performance in the past 12 months? (3) Please provide a specific name of your favourite Cantonese opera inheritor. Only those who answered ‘yes’ to the first two filtered questions and could complete the third question were invited to answer the remainder of the questionnaire. Otherwise, the survey would be terminated.

To locate qualified respondents with maximum opportunity, we chose two types of locations: the Museum of Cantonese Opera Art and theatres holding live performances of Cantonese opera in Guangzhou. Questionnaire collection at the theatres was arranged based on the performance time and venue information posted on the official WeChat accounts of two major Cantonese opera troupes. The questionnaire collection at the Art Museum of Cantonese Opera was scheduled for the morning (10–12 am) and afternoon (3–6 pm) sessions during weekends and public holidays. At each time, six pairs of trained assistants simultaneously conducted the survey. To reduce bias in the survey results, the research team pre-uploaded the questionnaire onto an online survey system that could randomly change the order of the measurement items in each survey and record the time taken to answer the questions. Respondents could scan the QR code to fill it in on their mobile phones or use the survey assistant’s tablet. The entire questionnaire was collected using convenience sampling between February 5 and May 3, 2023. A total of 400 questionnaires were gathered during the survey; 388 were deemed valid and 12 were considered unreliable because the respondents provided the name of a movie star instead of a Cantonese opera inheritor in the questionnaire.

Measurements

Five constructs were represented by 37 items and adapted from the literature for measuring tourists’ ICH tourism experience of Cantonese opera. These constructs include generativity, celebrity involvement, perceived scarcity, satisfaction and loyalty behaviour. Generativity and celebrity involvement are high-order constructs. The measurement of generativity is derived from two primary studies (Urien et al. 2011; Wells et al. 2016), including 14 items with 5 sub-dimensions. The measurement of celebrity involvement consists of 12 items with 3 dimensions: attraction, centrality and self-expression (Yen and Teng 2013). In this section, the term ‘celebrity’ was replaced with the specific name of the inheritor provided by each respondent. The measurement of perceived scarcity was adopted from five items. The satisfaction measurement was adopted from Yang et al. (2021) and covered three items. The measurement of loyalty behaviour was adopted from Kim and Stepchenkova (2019) and covered three items. A Cantonese opera context was considered when modifying any measurement item. As the measurement items were initially written in English and the respondents were Chinese tourists, questionnaire development used back-translation methods to ensure no confusion in the Chinese version. The participants were instructed to evaluate each item using a seven-point Likert scale, with options ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. Detailed information on all measurement items are included in Appendix A.

Considering the 10 times rule, the minimum sample size for this study is 370 (Hair et al. 2011). On the basis of an online sample size calculator, a minimum of 195 participants are required for this study, considering 11 latent variables, an expected effect size of 0.3, a significance level of 0.05 and a statistical power of 0.8 (Christopher Westland 2010; Soper 2023). Therefore, the sample size of 388 satisfied the recommended minimum sample size and achieved sampling adequacy.

Data analysis technology

Firstly, SPSS software was used to process and descriptively analyse the data. Secondly, given that our research model had a complex structure with two high-order constructs and research aimed to explore the effect of celebrity generativity on celebrity involvement of ICH inheritors, as well as perceived scarcity and behavioural intention towards ICH tourism, we chose PLS-SEM for data analysis because it is effective in analysing complex and exploratory research models (Hair Jr et al. 2022). Hair et al. (2011) reported that measurement and structure models were evaluated as part of our analysis process. Lastly, SmartPLS software was used to process the PLS-SEM estimation.

Results

Sample profile

An overview of the sample’s demographics are provided in Table 1. Of the 388 respondents, the majority, with 205 respondents (59.02%), were male, and the remaining 159 respondents (40.98%) were female. The age distribution was relatively even, with age groups of 18–25, 26–35, 36–45 and 56–65 accounting for approximately 20% of the overall sample, with relatively few respondents in the 66 or above age group. Education levels were relatively high, with over 60% of the respondents holding college degrees or above. Income levels are concentrated in the RMB 5000–10,000 monthly income range, accounting for 52.32% of the respondents. Over half of the respondents declared one to three Cantonese opera fans in their families.

Table 1 Demographic profile of the sample (n = 388).
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Common method bias

Data were collected only once and self-reported; thus, common method bias is possible. An exhaustive collinearity assessment approach, markedly suitable for PLS-SEM and widely accepted by established studies, was used to diagnose this bias (Kock 2015). All latent constructs showed pathological VIF values between 1 and 3.13, which are below the 3.3 threshold. Therefore, the research model of this study is unaffected by common method bias.

Measurement model

Considering the two higher-order constructs (generativity and celebrity involvement) in our research model, a two-stage approach was used to assess the reliability and convergent validity of the higher-order component (Hair Jr et al. 2022). In the first stage, the measurement models for lower- and first-order constructs within the higher-order components were evaluated. The results of this assessment are shown in Table 2. Cronbach’s α (ranging from 0.789 to 0.907) and CR values (from 0.877 to 0.935) exceed the 0.7 threshold, confirming the reliability of the first-stage measurement model. Additionally, factor loading values (between 0.764 and 0.939) and AVE (ranging from 0.677 to 0.86) surpass 0.7 and 0.5, respectively, indicating acceptable convergent validity for the first-stage measurement model.

Table 2 Reliability and Convergent Validity of First-Order and Low-order Constructs.
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In the second stage, the measurement models for the second-order constructs within the higher-order components were evaluated. The results of this evaluation are presented in Table 3. Factor loadings for the five sub-dimensions of the generativity construct and the three dimensions of celebrity involvement (i.e. attraction, centrality and self-expression) exceeded 0.7. Additionally, composite reliability, Cronbach’s α and AVE surpassed the required thresholds, confirming that the second-stage assessments produced acceptable results.

Table 3 Reliability and Convergent Validity of Second-Order Constructs.
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Discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell-Larcker criterion combined with heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) analysis (Fornell et al. 1981; Henseler et al. 2015). As shown in Table 4, the Fornell-Larcker criterion is met because the square root of the AVE exceeds the correlations between the constructs. For the HTMT analysis, most values are below 0.85, with only three slightly exceeding 0.85 but still under 0.9, indicating that the HTMT analysis results are acceptable.

Table 4 Discriminant Validity.
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Structure model

The first step in assessing the structural model involved using R² and Q² values to determine its predictive accuracy. For the model to be deemed acceptable, R² and Q² should exceed 0.1 and 0, respectively (Hair Jr et al. 2022). As shown in Table 5, the R² values range from 0.545 to 0.662, and the Q² values range from 0.361 to 0.489, confirming that the model is an acceptable predictor of structural efficiency.

Table 5 Determination Coefficient and Predictive Correlation.
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A bootstrapping technique with 5000 resamples was utilised to assess the statistical significance of the constructs. The arithmetic diagram in SmartPLS and detailed calculation results are presented in Fig. 2 and Table 6, respectively. Table 6 shows that the findings support H2 to H9. Meanwhile, H1(β = 0.094, t = 1.376) is not supported, indicating that generativity and satisfaction were not insignificantly correlated.

Fig. 2
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Bootstrapping Result in SmartPLS Software.

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Table 6 Findings of Effect Size and Hypothesis Testing.
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The ƒ2 values indicate the effect size and are also calculated to determine the quality of the hypotheses. Table 6 shows that all significant hypotheses, except for H1, have ƒ2 values above 0.02, indicating an acceptable level of support for each significant hypothesis.

This study gives insight into indirect relationships between constructs. Bootstrapping (5000 samples) was performed to evaluate the statistical significance of specific paths. Table 7 presents seven potential indirect paths from generativity to loyalty behaviour. The significance of IP1 (β = 0.265, t = 6.389, p < 0.001), IP2(β = 0.045, t = 2.673, p < 0.01), IP3 (β = 0.023, t = 3.138, p < 0.01) and IP5 (β = 0.159, t = 4.356, p < 0.001) confirmed that celebrity involvement and perceived scarcity are two critical factors in the process of forming loyalty behaviour from generativity. The establishment of IP4 (β = 0.065, t = 3.163, p < 0.01) and IP6 (β = 0.08, t = 4.3, p < 0.001) confirmed the existence of mediation roles for celebrity involvement and perceived scarcity in the process of forming satisfaction from generativity. Given that the relationship between generativity and satisfaction is insignificant (i.e. H1 is not supported), these mediation relationships should be fully mediated.

Table 7 Findings from the Indirect Path Analysis.
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Discussion and Conclusions

Several previous studies have recognised the impact of generativity on cultural tourism behaviour (Luo and Ye 2020; Fan et al. 2022; Lee et al. 2022; Wu et al. 2023). However, the current study, grounded in match-up and commodity theories, offers deep insights to enrich our understanding of tourists’ attitudes and behaviours within ICH tourism. The research findings confirm that factors influencing tourist attitudes and behaviours in ICH tourism encompass not only generativity but also celebrity involvement and perceived scarcity.

Firstly, the current study’s results indicate that generativity does not directly affect satisfaction with ICH tourism (H1). Instead, satisfaction with Cantonese opera directly influences tourists’ loyalty behaviour (H2). Although this situation may initially appear to contradict VAB theory, it aligns with previous research (Yang et al. 2021) because the current study identifies the mediating roles of celebrity involvement and perceived scarcity (H4, H8 and IP3) between generativity and satisfaction. Moreover, this study extends the understanding of VAB theory in tourism research. Match-up and commodity theories, as pivotal marketing theories, significantly influence the relationship between tourists’ personal values and satisfaction in this context, thereby underscoring their central role in ICH tourism. In promoting Cantonese opera, although tourists’ generativity can be boosted by educational institutions, marketing strategies ultimately drive their engagement and consumption of Cantonese opera. The sustainable growth of Cantonese opera unquestionably relies on the active involvement of marketers and its celebrities.

Secondly, the inheritors of Cantonese opera, acting as cultural celebrities representing their respective ICH, have celebrity endorsements rooted in tourists’ generativity (H3). The findings suggest that considerably high generativity amongst tourists increases celebrity involvement with cultural celebrities, such as Cantonese opera inheritors and performers. Hence, tourists with higher generativity are more inclined to engage with cultural celebrities. Promoting Cantonese opera through its inheritors is most effective when targeting tourists with high generativity. This outcome aligns with prior research on the influence of consumers’ personal values on celebrity endorsements (Kim et al. 2014; Park et al. 2015). However, this study distinguishes established research by broadening the scope of marketing research on celebrities to include non-entertainment celebrities.

Thirdly, this study reveals that generativity and cultural celebrities’ involvement directly impact the perceived scarcity of ICH tourism (H6 and H7). This finding is consistent with previous research on the influence of personal values on perceived scarcity (Zhang et al. 2022) and objective factors on perceived scarcity (Shapiro et al. 2017; Tan et al. 2019). Unlike prior studies, the current research moves beyond tangible goods and focuses on intangible commodities. The coefficient value of H6 differs from that of H7 (H6: β = 0.568; H7: β = 0.208), indicating that generativity has a stronger effect on perceived scarcity than celebrity involvement. That is, tourists’ sense of responsibility for preserving Cantonese opera plays a larger role in shaping their perception of scarcity than cultural celebrity endorsements. The current study also connects two important marketing theories. Match-up theory comes before commodity theory in the ICH tourism context. This finding suggests that marketing effort involving Cantonese opera celebrities can increase tourists’ perception of scarcity.

Lastly, the current study demonstrates that celebrity involvement from cultural celebrities and perceived scarcity directly influence tourists’ loyalty towards ICH tourism (H5 and H9). The results reveal that considerably high celebrity involvement in Cantonese opera increases the likelihood of tourists exhibiting assertive loyalty behaviour. This result aligns with previous findings on celebrity involvement in tourism research. Distinguishing the current study is its comprehensive coverage of various dimensions of loyalty behaviour (Lee et al. 2008; Yen and Teng 2013; Zhu et al. 2022). Increased perceived scarcity towards Cantonese opera increases the chance of tourists being loyal, consistent with research on souvenir purchase behaviour in ICH tourism (Zhang et al. 2022). Therefore, in ICH tourism, tourists’ loyalty to tourism products depends on how they perceive scarcity, whether tangible items (e.g. souvenirs) or intangible activities (e.g. artistic performances). Given that celebrity involvement has a more significant impact on tourists’ loyalty behaviour than perceived scarcity (H5: β = 0.345; H9: β = 0.280), promoting cultural celebrities holds paramount importance for the sustainable development of Cantonese opera. The current research underscores the significant role of cultural celebrities in preserving cultural heritage and enhancing tourism competitiveness (Gao et al. 2022).

Implications

Theoretical implications

Firstly, our study fills in the gap in match-up theory in the study of non-entertainment celebrities, specifically ICH inheritors. The findings suggest that the higher the generativity of tourists, the more aligned they are with the responsibility and values of cultural celebrities to pass on ICH. Generativity fosters markedly strong celebrity involvement and enhances the effects of celebrity endorsement for ICH tourism. Supporting the sustainable development of ICH tourism through cultural celebrity endorsements requires considering tourists’ generativity. Previous research has shown that people with higher generativity are more likely to engage in generative consumer behaviour. The current study finds that celebrity involvement from cultural celebrities representing ICH strengthens this established relationship. This finding supports established research highlighting the critical role of non-entertainment celebrities, including historical and cultural celebrities, in shaping cultural tourism behaviour (Gao et al. 2022). Moreover, this study shows that generativity is a key factor in matching ICH celebrities with tourists, thereby expanding the use of match-up theory in ICH tourism. In ICH tourism, celebrity endorsements are not immediately effective; they are influenced by such factors as tourists’ personal values. Previous studies have rarely investigated what causes celebrity involvement and often treated it only as an independent variable (Lee et al. 2008; Yen and Croy 2013; Yang 2018; Wu and Lai 2021). By validating generativity as an antecedent to celebrity involvement, the present study enhances the understanding of celebrity endorsements in ICH tourism and introduces a novel perspective to the theory.

Secondly, this study finds that for intangible tourism products, such as those related to ICH, the perceived scarcity driven by tourists’ generativity is stronger than that created by celebrity involvement. This finding indicates that tourists’ internal motivations and values, particularly their sense of responsibility for preserving cultural heritage, play a more significant role in shaping their perception of scarcity than external celebrity endorsements. Previous tourism research on commodity theory has mainly focused on tangible tourism products (Guo et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022). By using commodity theory to study Cantonese opera as an intangible cultural product, this research addresses a gap in how perceived scarcity works in ICH tourism. Tourists with higher generativity feel a stronger sense of scarcity for these cultural experiences. This finding highlights the importance of personal values in shaping behaviour in ICH tourism. The current research extends commodity theory from tangible to intangible tourism products. It provides a foundation for studying other forms of ICH tourism, such as art performances, food tourism, traditional crafts and ethnic sports; and offers a basis for future research in this area.

Lastly, this study explores how match-up and commodity theories affect the VAB model through path analysis. Previous studies have mainly used the VAB model to explore the link between consumer generativity and sustainable commodity consumption (Pan et al. 2022). These studies have focused minimally on the role of stakeholders, such as cultural celebrities and market operators, in marketing. The findings reveal that adding match-up and commodity theories weakens the direct effect of consumer generativity on commodity attitudes. This finding suggests that stakeholder involvement, particularly through celebrity endorsements and perceived scarcity, plays an indispensable mediating role. This outcome highlights the complex interaction between personal values and external marketing strategies in shaping tourists’ attitudes and behaviours towards ICH tourism. The sustainable growth of ICH tourism is strongly tied to the active participation of cultural celebrities and the intentional cultivation of perceived scarcity. By incorporating these elements, this study enhances the understanding of the VAB model, demonstrating its relevance in the context of ICH tourism marketing strategies.

Practical implications

From the marketing perspective, tourists must be subdivided when using inheritors to promote ICH tourism products. Given that the generativity of tourists significantly impacts celebrity involvement, inheritors are markedly suitable for ICH promotion to the group with high generativity. Marketing through social media is often considered an effective way to reach a specific group of people. As such, Cantonese opera inheritors must open personal accounts on social media and short video platforms. The objective is to increase celebrity involvement amongst Cantonese opera fans by broadcasting live webcasts or making short videos, as well as attracting other high-generativity groups to learn about and understand Cantonese opera, thereby resulting in increased loyalty and satisfaction.

Operators should focus on organising events for the Cantonese opera fan community. Through social media, they should make timely and accurate announcements of events and performances by famous Cantonese opera inheritors to Cantonese opera fans. Cultivating tourists’ generativity must be addressed in formulating a long-term marketing strategy. Governments, tourism operators and other non-profit organisations can invite Cantonese opera celebrities to participate in experiential and educational courses to provide tourists with cultural and historical information on Cantonese opera and to establish a foundation for building awareness of Cantonese opera scarcity. From the management perspective, ICH tourism operators and the government need to identify the generativity of inheritors when they choose to cultivate a certain new generation of inheritors. New generation of inheritors should be encouraged to become markedly involved in educational and cultural transmission activities for young people, demonstrating to the community that they are highly generative.

Limitations and Future Research

Although this study offers practical and theoretical insights, a few limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, although Cantonese opera has a well-established network of stakeholders and serves as an excellent example for exploring stakeholder dynamics, the findings may not be fully applicable to some other forms of ICH with inadequate stakeholder structure. Future research should explore whether or not the theoretical model holds in other ICH contexts, such as traditional crafts, food tourism or ethnic sports, to assess the broader applicability of these findings.

Secondly, Cantonese opera has a regional specificity linked to Cantonese-speaking areas. The special demographic characteristics of the Cantonese region, including its unique cultural heritage, values and traditions, may influence the behaviour of tourists. Future research should consider these regional factors to assess the considerably broad relevance and generalisability of the findings.

Thirdly, this study was conducted in the early period of China’s opening up to overseas tourism and did not include tourists from overseas during the investigation. Given that Chinese tourists share the same cultural background and educational environment, this study may not apply to tourists from other countries. Future studies should extensively examine the influence of demographic characteristics or more specific visitor segmentation, given that such factors as cultural distance and individual values may play a significant role in shaping ICH tourist behaviour (Li et al. 2024).

Lastly, this study’s cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish long-term causal relationships. Realistically, many inheritors are also involved in teenagers’ education to cultivate their generative nature. Further research is needed in the future because the relationship between generativity and celebrity involvement variables may be bidirectional.