Abstract
From the first excavation of the Daxi Site at the eastern exit of Qutang Gorge in 1958 to the excavation of the Dashuitian Site in 2014, a large number of jade-and-stone artifacts belonging to the Neolithic Daxi Culture have been unearthed in the Three Gorges Area of the Yangtze River, China. This study analyzed 120 jade-and-stone artifacts from the two sites using advanced techniques: Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, confocal Raman spectroscopy (CRM), ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Results identified 11 mineral types, including marble, nephrite, serpentine, quartzite, malachite, turquoise, and black talc. Based on mineralogical and geochemical data, most jade materials are inferred to be local, while turquoise likely came via long-distance trade. The findings shed new light on the Daxi Culture’s technological practices, resource economy, and regional interactions, providing a scientific foundation for understanding China’s Neolithic jade-and-stone artifact tradition.
Similar content being viewed by others
Introduction
In mineralogical terms, the classification of jade is limited to nephrite jade (Nephrite jade-actinolite series) and jadeite. However, in traditional Chinese archeology, the term “jade” (玉) encompasses a broader range of visually appealing stones-including turquoise, marble, malachite, serpentine, and quartz-that were used for ornamental or ritual purposes despite not meeting strict mineralogical criteria. These stones, often excluded from the strict mineralogical definition of jade due to their porous textures or inappropriate mineral compositions, nonetheless played a pivotal role in prehistoric societies as markers of status, ritual objects, and artistic expressions. They serve as critical material proxies for exploring the social complexity of early human communities1. “Jade-and-stone artifacts” as referred to in this paper denote the broad category of jade-related objects in the archeological context, including jade in the mineralogical sense and various types of “fine stones”.
The Daxi Culture, dating to approximately 6300–5050 BP, represents a crucial phase in the development of prehistoric cultures in the middle Yangtze River region, marking the sociocultural transition from matrilineal to patrilineal clan systems. Widely distributed across the Three Gorges Area, the western Jianghan Plain, and the Dongting Lake Basin, the Daxi Culture gave rise to corresponding local cultural variants; the Daxi Site and the Dashuitian Site are two representative sites of this culture in the Three Gorges Area2,3.
Jade-and-stone artifacts unearthed from the Daxi and Dashuitian Sites include a diverse array of forms—such as jade jué (玦: a type of prehistoric slotted jade ring), huáng (璜: a curved jade pendant, i.e., jade huáng), bì (璧: a circular jade disc with a central hole), huán (环: a plain jade ring), and zhuì (坠: jade beads/pendants), as well as a number of representational jade artifacts. These artifacts are typically small in size, finely ground, and occasionally carved or polished. Identifying their mineral composition and tracing their provenance through analytical techniques allows us to reconstruct ancient resource acquisition strategies, long-distance exchange networks, and local technological capabilities—key components in understanding the sociopolitical structure of the Daxi Culture.
Currently, archaeometric research on ancient jade-and-stone artifacts has been extensively reported, encompassing scientific testing and material analysis4,5,6,7,8, regional archeology and cultural studies9,10,11, technological methods and interdisciplinary research12,13, corrosion mechanisms and conservation studies14,15,16, as well as international comparison and intercultural research17,18. However, scientific and technological archeological research focusing on the jade-and-stone artifacts of the Daxi Culture in the Three Gorges Area remains relatively limited.
This study employs a suite of analytical techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and ultra-depth-of-field microscopy, to systematically characterize the material properties and provenance of raw materials used in these jade-and-stone artifacts. The primary objective of this study is to address this research gap by examining the specific functions of these artifacts within their contemporary societal context, the primitive religious beliefs they reflected, and their role as indicators of social hierarchy. Furthermore, it aims to elucidate the unique status and significant value of the Daxi Culture’s jade handicraft industry in regional social development, promoting technological exchanges, and contributing to the formation of the Yangtze River civilization.
Methods
Overview of Jade-and-stone artifacts from the Daxi site
The Daxi Site, the type site of the Daxi Culture, is located in Daxi Village, Daxi Township, Wushan County in northeastern Chongqing. Its geographic coordinates are 109°30′31″E and 31°0′15″N [Fig. 1,△2], with an altitude ranging from 125 to 145 m, approximately 35–45 m above the annual low water level of the Yangtze River. Based on the phasing results of the most recent excavation (2000–2003), the Daxi Culture remains at the Daxi Site can be divided into four phases: Phase I belongs to the early stage of the Daxi Culture (dating to approximately 6300–5950 years ago), retaining a few characteristics of the Liulinxi Culture; Phase II corresponds to the middle stage of the Daxi Culture (c. 5950–5550 years ago), when the Daxi Culture reached its maturity; Phase III falls within the late stage of the Daxi Culture (c. 5550–5300 years ago), also a period of relative prosperity for the culture; Phase IV marks the final stage of the Daxi Culture (c. 5300–5050 years ago). However, both the Youziling Culture of the eastern Jianghan Plain and the Upper Yuxi Culture of the eastern Sichuan Basin had expanded into this region by this time, resulting in the characteristic coexistence of multiple cultural elements19.
Distribution map of major Neolithic sites in the section of the Yangtze River from Qutang Gorge to Daning River. Drawn by Jiujiang Bai.
a WDⅡM102:1 – turquoise pendant (artifact no. 85); b WDⅡM85:1 – jade ring (jué, no. 32); WDⅡM85:2 – two pendants (no. 81, 82); WDⅡM85:3 – shell-bead necklace; WDⅡM85:4 – jade ring (jué, no. 33); WDⅡM85:5 – bone pin; WDⅡM85:6 – ceramic disc; c WDⅡM105:1 – jade bracelet; WDⅡM105:2 – jade arc pendant (huáng, no. 60); WDⅡM105:3 – pendant (no. 49); WDⅡM105:4 – bone bracelet; d Burial WDⅡM66:1–2 – two black annular ornaments; WDⅡM66:3 – malachite pendant (no. 68); e WDⅡM150:1 – jade ring (jué, no. 43); WDⅡM150:2 – jade ring (jué, no. 44); WDⅡM150:3, 5, 12 – stone adzes; WDⅡM150:4, 6 – stone axes; WDⅡM150:7, 8 – stone chisels; WDⅡM150:9 – tooth ornament; WDⅡM150:10 – bone dagger; WDⅡM150:11 – bone implement fragment; f WDⅡM69:1 – shell-bead necklace; WDⅡM69:2 – turquoise pendant (no. 86); g WDⅡM123:1 – ceramic jar with ring foot; WDⅡM123:2 – bone dagger; WDⅡM123:3 – antler pin; WDⅡM123:4 – turquoise pendant; WDⅡM123:5 – stone axe; WDⅡM123:6 – stone adze; WDⅡM123:7 – jade ring (jué, no. 42); h WDⅡM111:1 – two beads (no. 37, 38).
Previous excavations at the Daxi Site have yielded more than 100 jade-and-stone artifacts19, including such forms as jade jué, jade huáng, and various beads and other pendants. Notably, more than 60% of the jade-and-stone artifacts unearthed from tombs were jué, which can be subdivided into two types: the eccentric-hole type and the central-hole type. Most jade jué fractured into two to three pieces, and several retain perforations (2–3 mm in diameter) for post-breakage reassembly.
The spatial distribution of jade items, including pendants, jué rings, and bead strings-centered around the head and neck, often accompanied by bone pins or stone bracelets (Fig. 2). Artifacts were typically located near the head and neck, often fragmented or perforated for reassembly. This suggests a symbolic and functional emphasis on the adornment of critical bodily zones20.
Gender and age analyses reveal marked patterns: among 14 female burials of known sex, 12 contained jade-and-stone artifacts (86%), often alongside spindle whorls, suggesting a gendered role in jade crafting or usage. Interestingly, juvenile burials exhibit a higher rate of jade-and-stone inclusion compared to adult males, possibly reflecting social privilege conferred through kinship systems. Turquoise ornaments were multifunctional, likely serving as earrings, hairpins, necklaces, or even eyelid coverings in burial contexts. In 17 child burials, 7 included turquoise, indicating its cross-age symbolic value.
Stratigraphic evidence supports four developmental phases in jade-and-stone use: Phase I (Early stage) saw the appearance of jade ear plugs, beads, and huáng pendants, with uniform artifact forms, representing the initial stage of jade artifact use; Phase II (Middle stage) witnessed the emergence of new types including pendants and jué rings, alongside the first appearance of turquoise artifacts, corresponding to a stage of steady development in jade use; Phases III (Late stage) featured a diverse range of artifact types such as jade huáng pendants, pendants, huán rings, jué rings, bì disks, ear plugs, and plaques (eye cover ornaments?), with extensive utilization of talc and turquoise artifacts, marking the heyday of jade artifact use. By Phase IV (Final Stage), a wide variety of jade artifacts were present, and the proportion of jade artifacts interred as burial offerings increased, signaling the intensification of social stratification and representing a stage of continuity in jade use. The discovery of malachite debris, awl and drill tools, semi-finished jade-and-stone artifacts, and jade drill cores in the cultural layers further confirms the existence of jade-and-stone processing workshops at the site. This finding establishes the Daxi Site as one of the earliest jade-and-stone production centers in the Three Gorges region.
Overview of Jade-and-stone artifacts from the Dashuitian site
The Dashuitian Site is located in Wubai Village, Quchi Township, Wushan County, Chongqing. Its geographic coordinates are 109°45′14.7″E and 31°02′21.6″N (Figs. 1 and 3), with an altitude ranging from 162 to 169 m and a total area of approximately 12,000 m2. A large-scale archeological excavation was carried out from March to September 2014, uncovering abundant Daxi Culture remains that essentially cover Phases I to IV of the Daxi Culture. Among these, remains of Phases I and IV are relatively scarce, with the site predominantly consisting of remains from Phases II and III of the Daxi Culture3.
Classified by material: 1–49 Marble; 50–53 Nephrite; 54–56 Shell; 60–61 Serpentine; 57–58, 62–63, 66 Quartzite; 59, 64–65 Mica; 67–69 Malachite; 70 Jet; 71–72 Slate; 73–108 Turquoise; 109–120 Black Talc.
A total of 91 jade-and-stone artifacts were excavated from the Dashuitian site3, including various types of ornaments. The artifact assemblage reflects a broader color palette-white, pale green, dark green; and a wider array of forms, including huáng, jué, huán rings, bird-head pendants, and decorative beads.
Noteworthy examples include: A semicircular huáng pendant (Fig. 3, Specimen No. 53) measuring 126 mm long, with serrated trimming and paired perforations; A bird-head ornament (Fig. 3, Specimen No. 65) in dark green stone with realistic rendering, possibly linked to totemic symbolism.
The observed use of tube drilling, precision cutting, and meticulous polishing indicates a high level of artisanal expertise. Twenty-one black talc ornaments also display distinctive iconography, such as a human face pendant (Fig. 3, Specimen No. 120) with finely proportioned features and a triangular perforation at the top, and zoomorphic forms including a pig-shaped pendant (WQDM36:03)3 and a pangolin-shaped ornament (Fig. 3, Specimen No. 119), reflecting careful observation of local fauna. The combination relationship between trapezoidal pendants (e.g., Fig. 3, Specimen No. 101) and incised bone pins (e.g., WQDH217:5)3 suggest the presence of complex ritual systems and indicate that early communities may have recorded information through carved symbolic marks. The interment of crouched skeletons alongside animal remains further implies that such ornamentation was closely associated with social identity and funerary practice.
Specimens collection
This study analyzes 120 jade-and-stone artifacts excavated from two key sites associated with the Daxi Culture: 83 specimens were recovered from the Daxi Site (abbreviated as WD) and 37 from the Dashuitian site (abbreviated as WQD) (see Fig. 3 and Supplementary Information Table 1). These specimens essentially cover different types and materials of jade-and-stone artifacts unearthed from the two sites, encompassing Phases I to IV of the Daxi Culture remains. However, in terms of the quantity of jade-and-stone artifacts, they are mainly concentrated in Phases II and III of the Daxi culture2,3.
Analytical techniques
This study adopts a combined research method of geology and archeology21,22,23. Mineralogical analysis focuses on the mineralogical characteristics, spectral properties, and crystal structures of jade-and-stone artifacts, clarifying their material attributes and mineral phase compositions; geochemical analysis focuses on analyzing their chemical compositions, providing key data support for tracing the source of raw materials. The specific test methods are as follows. All techniques were selected to preserve the integrity of the cultural materials (i.e., non-destructive testing: only the surface of the specimens is cleaned with anhydrous ethanol prior to all tests, without any other specimen preparation procedures) while enabling high-resolution analytical results.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)24,25 was used to identify diagnostic absorption bands for calcite, tremolite, aragonite, serpentine, quartz, mica, malachite, turquoise, and talc. This analysis was conducted at the Gem Testing Center of China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), using a Bruker TENSOR 27 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Test conditions: reflection method was adopted, with a measurement range of 400–4000 cm⁻¹, a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹, a scanning time of 64 s, and 64 scans performed. The OPUS software was used to process the results, including baseline correction, smoothing processing, K-K transformation, and peak search. Comparative analysis of the spectral data obtained from tests was performed using OMNIC 9.2 software, with matching verification conducted by reference to the RUFF Mineral Spectral Database.
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)26,27 was applied for elemental analysis: energy-dispersive XRF (EDXRF) measurements were conducted with a Thermo Scientific ARL QUANT’X EDXRF spectrometer. The instrument was equipped with a rhodium (Rh) X-ray tube and a 15 mm² PCD detector (3.5 mm thickness). Prior to testing, the instrument underwent tiered calibration and performance adjustment: it was categorized into High Zb, Mid (Za/Zb/Zc), and Low (Za/Zb/Zc) tiers based on the atomic number (Z) of the target analytes. Corresponding filters (e.g., a thick copper filter for the High Zb tier, a thin palladium filter for the Mid Za tier, etc.) and operating voltages (e.g., 50 kV, 16 kV, etc.) were configured for each tier. Certified reference materials (CRMs) of the corresponding elements were used to perform full-spectrum scans under the parameter settings of each tier, so as to calibrate the correlation curve between count rate and element content; meanwhile, the resolution and stability of the instrument were adjusted. Throughout the testing process, a vacuum atmosphere was maintained. The live time was uniformly set to 60 s and the count rate to “Medium”, and the corresponding elements were detected according to the respective tiers, including Ba, Fe, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, K, Ca, Ti, Cr, and Mn, etc.
Confocal Raman spectroscopy (CRM)28,29 was used to acquire Raman spectra with a JASCO NRS-7500 spectrometer. The instrument used a 457 nm laser, an L1800 grating, and a laser power of 10 mW. Each measurement consisted of three scans of 15 s each, with a spectral resolution of 9–15 cm⁻¹ over the 100–4000 cm⁻¹ range. A silicon single crystal (peak at 520.5 cm⁻¹) was used for wavenumber calibration. Data processing was conducted with OPUS software.
X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)24,25: was performed with a Rigaku SmartLab SE diffractometer (Cu target) at the School of Materials and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan). The instrument was equipped with a D/teX Ultra250 detector, operating at 40 kV and 40 mA. Scanning was performed over a 2θ range of 3°–65° at a scan rate of 20°/min. Phase identification was performed using Jade 6.5 software, with matching conducted by reference to the ICDD PDF-2 database.
Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)30: was conducted at the Collaborative Innovation Center for Strategic Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), using an ESI NWR 193 laser ablation system coupled to an Agilent 7900 ICP-MS. A helium carrier gas was used. Each analysis included a 20-s background acquisition followed by 40 s of specimen signal acquisition. The laser spot size was 44 μm, operating at 5 Hz and 80 mJ. NIST SRM 610 was used for quality control and calibration, with additional reference materials BHVO-2G, BCR-2G, and BIR-1G for multi-standard validation.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS)31 were applied for analysis at the State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), using a TESCAN VEGA3 tungsten filament SEM. Backscattered electron (BSE) images were acquired and elemental analysis was conducted using an Oxford Instruments AztecOne XT EDS system. Specimens were uncoated and analyzed under low vacuum conditions (~10−3 bar) at an accelerating voltage of 10–15 kV, with conductive adhesive applied to the specimen bases.
Fluorescence Spectroscopy Analysis (3D-FS)32: Excitation-emission-intensity matrix data of marble and bone samples were collected using a Jasco FP8500 fluorescence spectrometer (Jasco, Japan). Test conditions: bandwidth of excitation and emission spectra: 5 nm; response time: 10 ms; detector scanning speed: 2000 nm/min; excitation spectrum range: 250–550 nm with a data interval of 5 nm; emission spectrum collection range: 270–750 nm with a data interval of 1 nm.
UV-Vis Spectroscopy Analysis (UV-Vis)33: A GemUV-100 UV-Vis spectrophotometer was employed to analyze the samples. The measurement method was the reflectance method, with the following measurement conditions: measurement range 220–900 nm, integration time 100 ms, and number of averages 8.
Results
Based on the analytical results (Table 1), the 120 jade-and-stone artifacts under investigation were categorized into 11 mineral types: marble, nephrite jade, shell, serpentine, quartzite, mica, malachite, jet, slate, turquoise, and black talc. The materials and their frequencies by site are summarized in Table 1 and discussed in detail below according to mineralogical characteristics.
Marble artifacts
A total of 49 marble artifacts were identified, all excavated from the Daxi Site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 1–49). These items, predominantly jade ring (jué), display coarse-grained textures and uneven cross-sections indicative of sedimentary metamorphic origin.
FTIR spectra of the specimens exhibit broad absorption bands in the 1496–1554 cm⁻¹ range, along with peaks at 889 cm⁻¹ and 715 cm⁻¹, which are diagnostic of calcite34. The band at 1496–1554 cm⁻¹ corresponds to the asymmetric stretching of carbonate (CO32−) groups, while those at 889 cm⁻¹ and 715 cm⁻¹ reflect out-of-plane and in-plane bending vibrations, respectively (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 1, 6, 20, 25, 48, 49).
Left 1: marble; right 1: nephrite & serpentine; left 2: shell; right 2: quartzite; left 3: mica; right 3: malachite; left 4: turquoise; right 4: black talc.
Under long-wave ultraviolet light, marble specimens emitted strong blue-white fluorescence, often accompanied by phosphorescence effect. Three-dimensional fluorescence spectroscopy revealed optimal excitation wavelengths between 270 and 550 nm and intense emission at 400–500 nm, peaking at Ex = 370 nm/Em = 450 nm. Phosphorescence emission ranged from 450 to 600 nm (Fig. 5).
a Fluorescence spectrum; b phosphorescence spectrum.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of fresh fracture surfaces showed tightly packed, regularly oriented columnar crystals. The microstructure reflects brittle but homogeneous crystal alignment of the marble (Fig. 6).
a ×49; b ×76; c ×481.
Major and trace elements in the samples were analyzed by LA-ICP-MS. The results show that all marble specimens are mineralogically characterized by predominant recrystallized calcite (CaCO₃) with a content exceeding 90% (Table 2), which conforms to the petrographic definition of “true marble”35.
Nephrite artifacts
Four nephrite jade artifacts were identified, all from the Dashuitian site. These include three jade ring (jué) and one arc-shaped pendant (huáng) (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 50–53).
FTIR analysis revealed consistent absorption features characteristic of nephrite jade, with key peaks observed at 1142, 1098, 1044, 923, 762, 688, 540, 511, 463, 431, and 419 cm⁻¹. The sharp bands near 1142 and 1098 cm⁻¹ are attributable to asymmetric Si–O stretching, while bands in the 923–688 cm⁻¹ range correspond to symmetric Si–O–Si stretching. Peaks below 540 cm⁻¹ result from bending vibrations of Si–O bonds and lattice vibrations involving metal cations (Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺)16 (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 50–53).
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) conducted on specimen No. 53 confirmed the FTIR results, identifying nephrite jade with high crystallinity. The measured diffraction peaks matched those of amphibole minerals in the JCPDS reference database (Fig. 7).
XRD patterns of selected artifacts confirming mineral identification (Matched reference peaks confirm tremolite, aragonite, and black talc compositions).
Shell artifacts
Three artifacts made from shell material were identified, all from the Daxi Site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 54–56). These include a repaired annular fragment and two pendants. All display nacreous luster and iridescent optical effects characteristic of aragonite.
FTIR spectra show broad absorption near 1485 cm⁻¹, attributed to asymmetric stretching of carbonate (CO32−) groups. Sharp peaks at 715 cm⁻¹ and ~881 cm⁻¹ are due to in-plane and out-of-plane bending of O–C–O bonds, respectively36. The presence of a band around 1540 cm⁻¹ suggests minor aragonites (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 54–56).
XRD analysis of specimen No. 54 revealed diffraction patterns closely matching those of aragonite (Fig. 7, PDF 41-1475), with strongest peaks at 31.33°, 33.32°, 52.68°, 53.22°, and 66.21°. Slight peak shifts are attributed to biological origin and lower crystallinity relative to inorganic aragonite. These results confirm the biogenic aragonite composition of the shell artifacts.
Serpentine artifacts
Two serpentine artifacts were identified from the Daxi Site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 60–61). One is a yellow arc-shaped pendant (huáng), the other a grayish-green ring fragment (huán). Both items are poorly preserved, with fractures and weathering visible on the surfaces.
The FTIR spectrum of specimen No. 60 shows characteristic serpentine absorption bands at 1046, 651, and 488 cm⁻¹, consistent with Si–O stretching and OH-related vibrations37. Specimen No. 61 presents similar bands at 993, 644, 561, and 447 cm⁻¹, with slight shifts likely due to weathering effects (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 60–61).
Chemical analysis via LA-ICP-MS was conducted at four locations on specimen No. 61. Trace element data from three of the four analysis points (Table 3) provide support for provenance analysis, with high Mg and Ni contents consistent with serpentinized ultramafic source rocks38,39. One point showed anomalies likely due to mineral contamination and was excluded from further interpretation.
Quartzite artifacts
Five quartzite artifacts were identified-three from the Daxi Site and two from the Dashuitian site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 57, 58, 62, 63, 66). These include pendants, raw material fragments, and tools. Most display glassy to greasy luster and well-preserved inclusions.
FTIR spectra show dominant absorption in the 1200–1000 cm⁻¹ region, especially at 1089 cm⁻¹, indicative of asymmetric Si–O and O–Si–O stretching vibrations. Additional peaks at 798 cm⁻¹, 779 cm⁻¹ (symmetric Si–O–Si stretching) and 538 cm⁻¹, 474 cm⁻¹ (bending vibration) match standard α-quartz spectra40, confirming quartzite as the principal component (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 57, 58, 62, 63, 66).
Mica artifacts
Three mica artifacts were recovered from the Dashuitian site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 59, 64, 65). These include a bracelet, a bird-head-shaped pendant, and a small triangular pendant. All display waxy to greasy luster, conchoidal fracture, and characteristic physical properties: refractive index 1.56 (spot method), Mohs hardness 2.5–3.0, and specific gravity 2.700–2.850 g/cm3 (by hydrostatic weighing).
FTIR spectra exhibit strong bands at 1058 cm⁻¹ due to Si–O–Si stretching, with additional peaks at 908, 731, and 666 cm⁻¹ corresponding to Si–O–Al vibrations. Weak features between 800 and 600 cm⁻¹ reflect mixed Si–O and Al–O vibrations, while peaks at 535 and 481 cm⁻¹ reflect Si–O bending vibration. The overall spectral profile matches that of muscovite41 (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 59, 64, 65).
Malachite artifacts
Three malachite artifacts were excavated from the Daxi Site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 67–69), with individual weights ranging from 1.872 to 8.074 g. Due to their porous texture, specific gravity measurements were not possible. The items are yellowish-green, opaque, and exhibit earthy luster.
FTIR spectra (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 67–68) display diagnostic absorption bands at 487, 529, 577, 782, 830, 900, 1058, 1098, 1421, 1545, and 2063 cm⁻¹. Specifically, the bands at 1421 and 1545 cm⁻¹ are attributed to the asymmetric stretching of CO₃²⁻ groups; the peaks at 900 and 1058 cm⁻¹ correspond to OH bending vibrations; the bands in the 600–830 cm⁻¹ range (577, 782, 830 cm⁻¹) indicate carbonate group deformation; the 487 cm⁻¹ band is associated with Cu–OH vibrations; and the bands at 529, 1098, and 2063 cm⁻¹ are characteristic of malachite’s intrinsic functional group vibrations. These FTIR spectra exhibit a high degree of agreement with the standard FTIR spectrum of malachite in the RRUFF Database42
UV–Vis absorption spectra show broad absorption in the ultraviolet and near-infrared regions, with minimal absorption in the visible range. A distinct absorption band appears at 352 nm, while the strongest reflectance occurs between 539–568 nm, imparting a green hue to the artifacts. Malachite shows strong UV and near-infrared absorption; turquoise features Cu²⁺-related absorption near 665 nm (Fig. 8, Specimens No. 67–69).
UV–Vis absorption spectra of malachite (left) and turquoise (right) artifacts.
Jet artifact
One artifact made of jet was identified at the Daxi Site (Fig. 3, Specimen No. 70). It is a small, spherical pendant, black in color with a faint metallic sheen. Under magnification, the structure reveals prominent lamellar texture. The item weighs 0.390 g and has a low specific gravity of 1.270 g/cm3.
CRM (Fig. 9) revealed typical carbonaceous features: a D-band at 1583 cm⁻¹ and a G-band at 1365 cm⁻¹. The D-band indicates structural disorder and edge effects, while the G-band reflects C=C stretching vibrations, consistent with the graphite-like structure of jet43. Spectral features confirm disordered carbon structure characteristic of jet.
CRM of the jet artifact showing D and G bands.
Slate artifacts
Two slate artifacts were found at the Daxi Site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 71–72), both black and opaque. They weigh 1.390 g and 3.305 g, with specific gravities of 2.490 and 2.760 g/cm3, respectively.
For the phase analysis (XRD) of slate specimens, a semi-quantitative analysis method was adopted, and the relative content of each mineral phase was estimated via the integral intensity method integrated in Jade 6.5 software. XRD results for specimen No. 71 indicate a slate composed of 83.750% chlorite, 11.460% albite, and 4.790% quartz. Specimen No. 72 is a carbonaceous slate with 41.750% illite, 31.880% quartz, 11.370% chlorite, and ~15% graphite (Fig. 7, Specimens No. 71–72). These compositions confirm the classification of the specimens as sedimentary or metamorphic slates of varied mineralogy.
Turquoise artifacts
A total of 38 turquoise artifacts were identified, with 19 from the Daxi Site and 17 from the Dashuitian site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 73–108). Colors range from pale green to blue-green and blue, with transparency varying from translucent to opaque. Surface features include yellow mineral inclusions, black specks, and quartz. Some specimens retain original host rock remnants up to 4 mm thick. Artifacts weigh between 0.615 and 12.293 g, with a specific gravity of 2.480–2.810 g/cm3.
FTIR spectra (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 74, 77, 78, 80, 83, 93, 96, 99, 107, 108) exhibit absorption bands at 490, 580, 649, 789, 840, 900, 1015, 1055, 1118, 2852, 2922, 3465, and 3508 cm⁻¹ 44. Peaks near 3465 cm⁻¹ are associated with OH stretching; 1015–1118 cm⁻¹ bands correspond to the ν3 stretching vibration of PO43− asymmetric stretching; and peaks at 840 cm⁻¹ correspond to hydroxyl (OH) bending vibrations, while peaks at 580 cm⁻¹ and 649 cm⁻¹ are associated with ν4 bending vibrations of phosphate (PO4).
UV–Vis spectra (Fig. 8, Specimens No. 73, 74, 78, 80, 82, 83, 86, 87, 90, 95, 104, 107) show strong, broad absorption at 665 nm attribute to Cu²⁺ d–d transitions and twin peaks at 421 and 429 nm are due to the substitution of aluminum ion (Al³⁺) by iron (Fe³⁺), Fe3+ transitions such as 6A1 → 4E4, A1(4G).
LA-ICP-MS analysis results show that the chemical composition of the turquoise artifacts from the Daxi Site is dominated by four major oxides: Al₂O₃, P₂O₅, CuO, and FeO. Quantitative analysis indicates that Al2O3 concentrations range from 27.700 to 34.500 wt%, while P2O5 ranges from 36.100 to 43.600 wt%, consistent with the typical phosphate framework of turquoise-group minerals. CuO content ranges from 4.120 to 9.260 wt%, indicating substantial incorporation of Cu²⁺ as a chromophore, and FeO content varies between 0.810 and 4.170 wt%, reflecting secondary substitution mechanisms and potential weathering influence (Table 4).
In addition to the major elements, several trace elements were detected (Table 4), including zinc (Zn), barium (Ba), vanadium (V), and chromium (Cr). Zn concentrations range from 0.012 to 1.920 wt% with an average of 0.316 wt%, suggesting minor Zn²⁺ substitution in the phosphate lattice. Ba content ranges from 0.051 to 0.233 wt% (mean: 0.113 wt%), V and Cr show considerable variability, with V ranging from 0 to 0.089 wt% (mean: 0.011 wt%) and Cr from 0.001 to 0.157 wt% (mean: 0.036 wt%), indicating heterogeneous geochemical signatures likely influenced by local geological conditions and source variability.
These compositional characteristics suggest that the turquoise artifacts were derived from a phosphate-rich, Cu-bearing sedimentary or low-grade metamorphic source, with potential input from multiple mineralization environments. Elemental compositions are consistent with sedimentary-metamorphic turquoise, suggesting long-distance acquisition from known turquoise-bearing regions.
Black talc artifacts
Twelve black talc artifacts were excavated from the Dashuitian site (Fig. 3, Specimens No. 109–120). These artifacts are typically black or dark gray in color with a waxy to greasy luster and smooth surfaces. The surfaces are generally smooth, though some specimens show minor abrasions.
Measurements of specific gravity (SG) conducted via hydrostatic weighing yielded consistent results, ranging from 2.487 to 2.582 g/cm3 (Table 5). These values are significantly higher than those of jet or carbonaceous shale (typically <1.500 g/cm³), thus ruling out an organic origin.
FTIR spectroscopy revealed characteristic absorption bands consistent with talc (Fig. 4, Specimens No. 111–115). Prominent peaks were observed at 489, 516, 672, 687, and 1045 cm⁻¹, along with a broad shoulder near 1125 cm⁻¹, corresponding to Si–O–Si stretching and OH-related vibrations within the layered silicate structure45. These features are diagnostic of talc and distinguish it from other magnesium-rich sheet silicates such as chlorite or serpentine.
Elemental composition determined via energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis further supports this mineralogical assignment (Table 6). The artifacts exhibit high SiO2 (73.100–74.000 wt%) and MgO (24.500–25.400 wt%), with trace amounts of Fe (0.29–0.30 wt%), Al (0.333–0.343 wt%), Na (~0.080 wt%), and K (~0.130–0.170 wt%). These data confirm black talc as the dominant component, with minimal elemental variation between specimens, indicating a single-source origin.
Discussion
The material analysis of 120 jade-and-stone artifacts revealed a wide range of mineral types; however, high-quality nephrite jade was rare. This pattern aligns with the resource context of the Daxi Culture, which developed in a region relatively deficient in traditional jade resources. By integrating mineralogical data, geochemical signatures, and regional geological surveys, we attempt to assess the probable origins of raw materials and tentatively infer the relative extent of local procurement versus long-distance exchange. In this study, only turquoise yields relatively robust provenance constraints. Provenance inferences for all other materials are based solely on correlations with geological features. As no directly comparable reference database for provenance analysis is currently available, these interpretations warrant further testing and refinement through future targeted mineral provenance research.
Based on comparisons of geological backgrounds, the marble raw materials in the unearthed artifacts from Daxi Site may have been sourced locally (a preliminary hypothesis that requires verification with additional deposit data in subsequent studies). The Daxi Culture was distributed across the western Jianghan Plain, the Dongting Lake Basin and their surrounding areas in the Middle Yangtze River region, as well as the Three Gorges Area in the Upper Yangtze River region46. The Daxi and Dashuitian sites are situated in a region characterized by widespread carbonate sedimentary formations, providing potential favorable conditions for marble availability. Archeological layers at the Daxi Site have yielded large quantities of stone artifacts—including raw materials, debitage, and finished tools—tentatively suggesting on-site production workshops. This is further supported by the presence of abundant bone artifacts, indicating a complete chain47. Geological surveys indicate the widespread presence of carbonate rocks—including limestone, dolomite, and marble—throughout the Chongqing region, particularly in the vicinity of the Daxi Site. The abundance, consistent color, and structural uniformity of the marble artifacts, combined with their sheer quantity, tentatively suggest the use of one or a few local sources. This interpretation is further supported by archeological evidence of potential in situ production workshops for both stone and bone tools, indicating that the marble employed in artifact manufacture was most likely procured locally (though this remains to be corroborated by further deposit data).
Jet artifacts are thought to have been introduced via cultural exchange. Jet (also known as lignite amber or black amber) is a rare organic gemstone formed from fossilized wood under high pressure and low temperature. It is light, durable, and typically found in low-rank coal deposits. Modern jet deposits in China are primarily located in northern provinces such as Liaoning (Fushun), Inner Mongolia (Chifeng), Shaanxi (Tongchuan), and Shanxi (Datong)48. No jet deposits have been identified in the Chongqing or Sichuan regions to date. Therefore, the single jet artifact from the Daxi Site may be most plausibly interpreted as an exotic object introduced through regional exchange.
Turquoise artifacts should originate from the southern and northern ore belts of the Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi region. Based on the elemental results obtained via LA-ICP-MS analysis, combined with the data of ore samples collected from Xinjiang, Anhui, Shaanxi, Henan, and Hubei49 (this database is not publicly available), we selected provenance-diagnostic elements (including Zn, Mo, and Ba) to conduct principal component analysis (Fig. 10). The Daxi specimens match the compositional range of turquoise from the Hubei–Henan–Shaanxi mineral belt, and differ significantly from those of Anhui or Hami (Xinjiang), indicating their likely origin in the Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi region50 (Fig. 10a). Further comparison with sub-regional compositional databases shows that the Daxi specimens cluster within the northern and southern sectors of the Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi belt, while exhibiting no overlap with the central zone (Fig. 10b). This suggests that turquoise was acquired from either the northern or southern mining areas of this mineral belt.
a Comparison with Anhui, Hami, and Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi mineral belts. b Distribution across northern, central, and southern sub-belts within Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi.
Malachite artifacts are suggested to have been locally processed and manufactured using raw materials acquired through long-distance exchange. Malachite has a wider geological distribution, with large deposits identified in multiple regions, including Guangdong (Yangchun), Hubei (Daye, Yangxin), Jiangxi (Ruichang), Gansu (Lanzhou–Baiyin), and Tibet, among others. The quantity of malachite artifacts produced at prehistoric sites was extremely limited, and the raw ore materials required did not necessarily originate from large ore belts; small, scattered ore occurrences could fully meet the demand. According to relevant data, the Member 2 of the Badong Formation (T₂b²) is distributed in the present-day counties of Fengjie, Wushan, and Wuxi, and most of these strata contain copper mineralization layers. Among these, the ore-bearing layers in Fengjie and Wushan counties are distributed in a zonal pattern along the two flanks of the Fangdou Mountain Thrust Anticline and the Qiyaoshan Anticline. Sandstone-type copper mineralization occurrences are exposed in areas such as Daxi and Quchi in Wushan County, where the main copper minerals include covellite, malachite, chalcocite, and digenite, with minor or occasional occurrences of secondary minerals such as azurite, bornite, and chalcopyrite. Malachite mostly occurs as fine-to-microcrystalline aggregates, fine-grained disseminated forms, and veinlet forms, and such occurrences are commonly observed in sandstone-type copper deposits in northeastern Chongqing51. Results of systematic field investigations have confirmed the presence of surface-exposed malachite ore occurrences within Wuxi County (Fig. 11). Taken together, the fragments of raw malachite material and evidence of local production identified from archeological cultural layers fully demonstrate that such raw materials were sourced from primary ore deposits near the site and processed locally19—potentially serving as symbolic or functional substitutes for turquoise, which was more precious and less accessible.
Surface-exposed malachite ore occurrences within Wuxi County. Photographed and drawn by Jiujiang Bai.
Black talc artifacts are presumed to be obtained locally or in nearby areas. The 12 black talc artifacts from the Dashuitian site exhibit remarkable consistency in color, texture, and mineral composition, suggesting derivation from a single geological source. Black talc deposits are primarily distributed across south-central and southwestern China52,53, notably in Hunan (Baojing), Hubei (Hefeng, Yangjiaping), Jiangxi (Shangrao, Jiujiang), Guangxi (Luchuan, Pingnan), and southeastern Chongqing (Fangjiawan, Yaokou, Changtian). Although the Hefeng source is geographically closer to Dashuitian, the terrain may have limited direct access. In contrast, deposits along the Yangtze River in southeastern Chongqing would have been more accessible via fluvial transport routes. These findings underscore the need for further archeological and geological surveys of talc-bearing strata in the Maokou Formation near Dashuitian. Regional geological surveys indicate that black talc in southeastern Chongqing and southwestern Hubei occurs as sedimentary layers within the Permian Maokou Formation (Permian) as two-layered stratiform bodies. These deposits are typically 2–4 m thick and consist of black talc-bearing limestone with talc contents of approximately 33–37%52. Similar mineralogical and geochemical profiles are documented in the Hefeng (Yangjiaping) deposit in Hubei53. The composition and formation processes of the Dashuitian specimens match these regional deposits. The use of black talc for symbolic or ornamental objects, such as figurines, pendants, or anthropomorphic forms, may reflect both local geological availability and specific esthetic or ritual preferences within the Dashuitian community.
Based on the results of mineralogical and geochemical analyses including Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), this study presents a comparative analysis of the Daxi and Dashuitian Jade Systems, which reveals that although both sites belong to the Daxi cultural tradition, and most of the jade-and-stone artifacts unearthed at both sites date to the heyday of the Daxi Culture (Phases II and III), their jade assemblages reflect distinct patterns in material selection, artifact typology, production techniques, and symbolic functions -underscoring regional differentiation within a shared cultural framework.
Material preference: Material selection at the Daxi Site is dominated by locally sourced grayish-white marble, indicative of reliance on nearby carbonate outcrops. In contrast, Dashuitian displays more diverse raw materials, including turquoise, black talc, and nephrite jade, suggesting access to long-distance exchange networks or procurement from broader catchment areas.
Form and function: In terms of form and function, jade-and-stone artifacts at Daxi are primarily small-scale, decorative, or ritual in nature, such as fragmented jué rings (3–5 cm in diameter) and fine beads (<1.5 cm)-frequently associated with burial contexts and mortuary rites. Dashuitian, however, yielded larger and more elaborate items, including ceremonial huáng pendants (e.g., Specimen No. 53, 12.6 cm long), zoomorphic figures (e.g., Specimen No. 65, bird-head ornament), and anthropomorphic carvings in black talc (e.g., WQDM92:8 with exaggerated genitalia3). These differences reflect a shift from minimalistic and symbolic designs at Daxi to more narrative and representational styles at Dashuitian.
Craft techniques: Production techniques also differ markedly. Daxi artifacts were typically crafted using planar cutting and tube drilling, with limited surface refinement. In contrast, Dashuitian demonstrates advanced craftsmanship, including stepped-carving techniques on nephrite rings, serrated edges on pulley-shaped ornaments (e.g., Specimen No. 112), and highly detailed facial features on figurative objects (e.g., Specimen No. 120, with carving deviations of less than 3 mm). Moreover, Dashuitian artifacts show evidence of systematic visual codes, such as standardized incised motifs on bone pins (e.g., WQDH217)3, with resolution reaching 0.1 mm-suggesting the existence of symbolic or record-keeping systems.
Esthetic orientation and symbolic expression also diverge. Daxi jade works emphasize simplicity, refinement, and repetition, whereas Dashuitian artifacts favor dynamic forms, rich iconography, and biological realism. While jade from Daxi is predominantly white or light-colored, Dashuitian jade spans a broader chromatic range, especially in its use of turquoise and dark talc. The geometric forms of turquoise pendants at Dashuitian (e.g., trapezoidal and triangular) differ notably from the cylindrical and spherical turquoise beads commonly found at inland Daxi Sites. Cultural context and regional identity further distinguish the two sites. Dashuitian burials include bone pins with inscribed signs, pottery bells, mask-shaped pottery, and animal sacrifices-all suggestive of complex ritual systems and primitive religion frameworks. The frequent depiction of animals and human forms in Dashuitian ornamentation contrasts with the more abstract, symbolic tendencies observed at Daxi. These features point to a stronger regional artistic identity at Dashuitian, possibly shaped by its ecological setting and interregional interactions.
From a historical perspective, the Daxi Culture in Chongqing served as a vital nexus within the pluralistic and integrated framework of Yangtze River civilization54. Its jade craftsmanship not only reflect the increasing complexity of Neolithic society in the Three Gorges region, but also facilitated cultural interaction between the Dongting-Jianghan plains and the eastern Sichuan hills through the movement of materials and symbols. The jade-and-stone artifacts, both in form and function, are testimony to the creativity and connectivity of peripheral societies in shaping early Chinese civilization.
In summary, through systematic analysis of 120 jade-and-stone artifacts from the representative Daxi Culture sites of Daxi and Dashuitian, this study has established a systematic mineralogical and geochemical dataset and identified 11 major raw material types. Principal component analysis (PCA) confirms that turquoise raw materials originated from the Hubei-Henan-Shaanxi mineral belt, providing new empirical support for the existence of interregional exchange networks. The study also reveals that jade-and-stone artifacts of the Daxi Culture exhibit a clear evolutionary trajectory from simple styles to figurative forms. The diversity of raw material sources and the variability in their utilization patterns provide important clues for exploring potential changes in the social structure of this region. Furthermore, the “classification criteria for jade-and-stone artifacts” and “multi-technique integrated analytical approach” proposed in this study (encompassing optical microscopy, FTIR, XRD, LA-ICP-MS, and other techniques) can both serve as important references for material research and provenance tracing of similar archeological remains. Collectively, these findings underscore the central position of the Daxi Culture in shaping the pattern of early Yangtze River civilization through jade production practices and interregional cultural interactions.
Data availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available because the excavation report has not yet been officially published, but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Wang, R. & Zhang, W. Application of Raman spectroscopy in the nondestructive analyses of ancient Chinese jades. J. Raman Spectrosc. 42, 1324–1329 (2011).
Zou, H. X. & Bai, J. J. Excavation and staging of the Daxi Site in Wushan (in Chinese). In Proc. 2001 Chongqing Three Gorges Cultural Relics Protection Academic Seminar 41–50 (Science Press, 2003).
Dai, Y. B. & Bai, J. J. Excavation report on the Daxi cultural remains at the Dashuitian site in Wushan County, Chongqing (in Chinese). Archaeol. 1 42, 43–60 (2017).
Zhao, H. X., Li, Q. H., Liu, S., Hu, Y. Q. & Gan, F. X. Nondestructive analysis of jade artifacts from the Cemetery of the Ying State in Henan Province, China using confocal Raman microspectroscopy and portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. J. Raman Spectrosc. 45, 173–178 (2014).
Wang, K. et al. The Non-destructive analysis of some ancient jade artifacts unearthed from henan province by a variety of optical techniques (in Chinese). Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi (Guang Pu) 35, 2492–2499 (2015).
Zhao, H., Li, Q. & Liu, S. Investigation of some Chinese jade artifacts (5000 BC to 771 BC) by confocal laser micro-Raman spectroscopy and other techniques. J. Raman Spectrosc. 47, 545–552 (2015).
Manrique-Ortega, M., Mitrani, A., Casanova-González, E., Jiménez-Galindo, L. & Ruvalcaba, J. L. Methodology for the non-destructive characterization of jadeite-jade for archaeological studies. Spectrochim. Acta Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 217, 294–309 (2019).
Chen, D., Zhai, J., Qiao, B. & Luo, W. On-site non-destructive identification of Dushan jade using portable Raman, pXRF, FTIR, and NIR. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 60, 1–13 (2024).
Li, P., Liao, Z., Zhou, Z. & Wu, Q. Evidences from infrared and Raman spectra: Xiaomeiling is one reasonable provenance of nephrite materials used in Liangzhu Culture. Spectrochim. Acta Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 261, 120012 (2021).
Lu, H. et al. Characterizing ancient jade by on-site analysis in Sanxingdui, China. Herit. Sci. 11, 121 (2023).
Chen, D., Tang, J., Yu, M., Yang, Y. & Wang, C. Identification of a source of nephrite from late Shang Yinxu by multispectral imaging. Herit. Sci. 11, 4 (2023).
Liu, S., Su, B., Li, Q. & Yee, G. Application of Calibration Curve Method and Partial Least Squares Regression Analysis to Quantitative Analysis of Nephrite Samples Using XRF (in Chinese). Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi (Guang Pu) 35, 245–251 (2015).
Chen, D., Qiao, B. & Luo, W. Concentration-number (C-N) fractal models reveal the distribution pattern of the elements in ancient nephrite measured by portable X-ray fluorescence: based on nephrite objects excavated from different sites in Nanyang, Henan Province. Archaeometry 66, 931–948 (2024).
Bao, Y., Xu, C., Zhu, Q. & Li, Y. A study on Chinese ancient jades with mercury alteration unearthed from Lizhou’ao Tomb. Sci. Rep. 9, 19849 (2019).
Zhang, K. et al. Corrosion analysis of unearthed jade from Daye Zhen Tomb of Northern Zhou Dynasty. Herit. Sci. 11, 224 (2023).
Xu, C. et al. The deterioration structure of tremolite jade artifacts from the Sanxingdui sacrificial pits dated to the Shang Dynasty in Guanghan, Sichuan, China. npj Herit. Sci. 13, 138 (2025).
Harlow, G. et al. Pre-Columbian jadeitite artifacts from San Salvador Island, Bahamas and comparison with jades of the eastern Caribbean and jadeitites of the greater Caribbean region. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 26, 101830 (2019).
Wang, R. & Shi, X. Progress on the nephrite sources of jade artifacts in ancient China from the perspective of isotopes. Front. Earth Sci. 10, 1008387 (2022).
Bai, J. J. Wushan Daxi_ An Archaeological Report on the Neolithic Age Site (in Chinese) (Science Press, 2025).
Xie, J. Z. On the shamanic medical and decorative functions of turquoise in the Daxi cultural site of Wushan. J. Chongqing Three Gorges Univ. 28, 8–10 (2012).
Liu, J. et al. Mineral origin of tremolite jade artifacts from the Guojiamiao Cemetery, Eastern Zhou Dynasty, Hubei, China: based on petrology, spectroscopy, and geochemistry. npj Herit. Sci. 13, 52 (2025).
Fang, T., Liu, J. & Yang, M. Reanalysis on the spectral characteristics and materials of jade jue unearthed from Lijiashan Ancient Tomb in Yunnan Province, China. J. Gems Gemmol. 26, 48–55 (2024).
Zancanaro, A. & Domingues, M. J. Analysis of the scientific literature on massive open online courses (MOOCs)/Análisis de la literatura científica sobre los cursos en línea abiertos y masivos (MOOC). RIED 20, 59 (2017).
Douglas, J. G. & Yang, J. Materials and technology of Chinese jades dating to the Western Zhou period (1050-771 BCE). Sci. China Technol. Sci. 51, 467–480 (2008).
Fang, T., Chang, Y. & Yang, M. Nephrite from Xinjiang Qiemo Margou deposit: gemological and geochemical insights. Minerals 14, 458 (2024).
Kong, G., Ting, F., Taijin, L., Yan, L. & Yayun, C. Hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope ratios of dolomite-related nephrite: relevance for its geographic origin and geological significance. G&G. GEMS. 56, 266 (2020).
Knight, W. et al. Complementary scientific techniques for the study of Mesoamerican greenstone objects. Herit. Sci. 12, 42 (2024).
Zhao, H.-X. & Gan, F.-X. Application of Raman Spectroscopic Technique to the Identification and Investigation of Chinese Ancient Jades and Jade Artifacts (in Chinese). Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi (Guang Pu) 29, 2989–2993 (2009).
Gan, F. et al. The non-destructive analysis of ancient jade artifacts unearthed from the Liangzhu sites at Yuhang. Zhejiang. Sci. China Technol. Sci. 53, 3404–3419 (2010).
Gong, N., Wang, C. & Xu, S. Color origin of greyish-purple tremolite jade from Sanchahe in Qinghai Province, NW China. Minerals 13, 1049 (2023).
Wille, G., Lahondère, D. & Kloppmann, W. Coupled SEM-EDS-RAMAN: a complementary approach for characterisation – Application to geomaterials. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1324, 012012 (2025).
LÜ, Y., PEI, J. C. & ZHANG, Y. Y. Chemical composition and spectra characteristics of hydrothermal synthetic sapphire (in Chinese). Spectrosc. Spect. Anal. 42, 3546–3551 (2022).
LI, J. H. et al. Study on the firing process and composition of coarse white porcelain from Hebi Ji Kiln during the Song and Jin dynasties (in Chinese). Spectrosc. Spect. Anal. 44, 3414–3421 (2024).
Tang, J. et al. Research on the mineralogical characteristics and color formation mechanisms of different colored travertine in the Shenxianchi scenic spot: a comprehensive analysis using multi-technique characterization. Carbonates Evaporites 40, 81 (2025).
Chi, G. C., Wu, Y., Wang, H. J., Chen, Y. L. & Wang, D. Q. Application of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy in the identification and classification of marble (in Chinese). Rock Miner. Anal. 37, 43–49 (2018).
Li, X. Characteristics of FTIR spectra of biogenic aragonite in mollusk shells (in Chinese). Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi (Guang Pu) 25, 1588–1590 (2005).
Liu, W. D. et al. A new method for non-destructive testing of ancient jade materials: diffuse reflectance infrared spectroscopy. Appl. Laser 29, 540–544 (2009).
Chen, Q., Wang, Y. Y. & Gan, F. X. The chemical compositions and origin characters of serpentine jade from different deposits. Appl. Mech. Mater. 624, 119–123 (2014).
Dong, J., Wang, Y., Gan, F. & Li, Q. Trace element analysis by PIYE and ICP-AES of raw material and ancient serpentine artifacts from China. Spectrosc. Spect. Anal. 36, 3780–3788 (2016).
Lu, H. et al. Mineralogical characteristics and color genesis of black quartzite jade from Linwu, Hunan, China. Sci. Rep. 15, 14643 (2025).
Sayin, M. Infrared spectra of muscovites as affected by chemical composition, heating and particle size. Clay Miner 13, 241–254 (1978).
RRUFF Project. R050508: Turquoise mineral data. https://rruff.info/R050508. Accessed 2025-11-10.
Li, X., Hayashi, J. & Li, C.-Z. FT-Raman spectroscopic study of the evolution of char structure during the pyrolysis of a victorian brown coal. Fuel 85, 1700–1707 (2006).
Shirdam, B. et al. Characterizing the provenance signatures and geochemical behaviors of turquoise in copper deposits: comparative case studies of Meiduk, Iran and Tongling, China. Abstract collection of papers from the 10th national conference on mineral science and engineering. J. Gems Gemmol. 2, 047428 (2024).
Ruslan, I. Nephrite jade and jadeite-omphacite jade bearing artifacts from Bulgaria: archaeomineralogical significance and reevaluation of their possible sources (in Bulgarian with English abstract). Geo. Miner. Resour. 30, 25–27 (2023).
Yu, Y. B., Xiang, G. H., Cui, J. F. & Xiao, C. Y. Chemical composition and microscopic analysis of painted pottery of the Daxi culture in Yichang area (in Chinese). Jianghan Archaeol. 5, 112–121 (2023).
Fan, G. J. & Hu, C. Y. The third excavation of the Daxi Site in Wushan (in Chinese). Acta Archaeol. Sin. 4, 461–490 (1981).
Su, Z. H. Preliminary study on pre-Qin jet products unearthed in Northern China (in Chinese). Cult. Relics Identif. Apprec. 2022, 169–171 (2022).
Liu, L. Key Technologies and Applications for Provenance Tracing of Turquoise Unearthed in China (in Chinese). PhD Dissertation, China University of Geosciences (2023).
Chen, D. et al. From mines to tombs: decoding the journey of turquoise artifacts at the Xingong site (1500-1300 BC). Beijing Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 17, 1–12 (2025).
Gao, C. H. & Zhang, P. F. Preliminary discussion on geological characteristics and enrichment regularity of sandstone-type copper deposits in Badong Formation, eastern Chongqing (Fengjie area) (in Chinese). China City Econ. 9, 158–160 (2010).
Liu, S. D., Xiao, K. M. & Zhou, H. J. Geological characteristics and industrial application of sedimentary black talc ore in Nantong, Chongqing. China Non Met. Min. Ind. Guide 3, 30–34 (1985).
Zhao, J., Li, Z. W., Chen, L., Cao, W. S. & Fang, X. L. Geological characteristics and genesis of the Yangjiaping talc deposit in Hefeng County, Hubei Province (in Chinese). Miner. Geol. 37, 956–962 (2023).
Bai, J. J. Edge effects of the Daxi culture in the Three Gorges area: corridor effect, reciprocal exchange, local spirit and simple settlements (in Chinese). J. Chongqing Norm. Univ. 3, 33–38 (2019).
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Jade and Jade Culture Research Team led by Professor YANG Mingxing from China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) for their assistance in specimen testing. Special thanks are due to Ms. LIU Jia and Dr. LIAO Xiuhong from the Gem Testing Laboratory of China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) for their guidance on experimental testing techniques. This research was supported by the Special Project for Performance Incentive and Guidance of Scientific Research Institutions in Chongqing (Project No. CSTC2022JXJL00004), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) (Project No. 2024XLB5), the Scientific Research Project of the Gemmological Institute, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) (Project No. CIGTXM - 04 - S202403), and the Major Project of “Archeology in China” (Document No. Wenwu Baohan [2020] 444).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization: Jiujiang Bai, Mingxing Yang. Methodology: Mingxing Yang. Software: Yue Su. Validation: Wenhua Zhao, Lin Ye, Ting Fang. Graphical analysis: Yue SU, Ting Fang. Investigation: Jiujiang Bai, Wenhua Zhao, Lin Ye, Ting Fang. Resources: Jiujiang Bai, Yubiao Dai, Mingxing Yang. Data curation: Yue Su, Writing—original draft: Wenhua Zhao, Yue Su. Writing—Review and editing: Ting Fang. Visualization: Ting Fang. Supervision: Mingxing Yang. Project administration: Mingxing Yang. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Bai, J., Fang, T., Zhao, W. et al. Characterization and provenance analysis of jade-and-stone from the Daxi Culture, Three Gorges, China. npj Herit. Sci. 14, 296 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-026-02488-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Version of record:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-026-02488-6
