Fig. 5: Cell viability after culturing in 3D microstructures for 24, 48, and 72 h.

a Fluorescence images of three printed materials at varying wavelengths. b Fluorescence intensity of three printed materials across different wavelengths. c Proliferative activity of cells after 24, 48, and 72 h of culture. d Optical density (OD) values of cells cultured for 24, 48, and 72 h in 2D and 3D microstructures. Values are expressed as the means ± SD of three independent experiments (n = 3), Statistical significance was determined by one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc test. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, ****p < 0.0001 for comparisons between 2D/3D structures and the Control group at the same time point; ^####p < 0.0001, ^###p < 0.001 for comparisons between 2D/3D structures and the Control group at the different time point. e Fluorescence microscopy images of cells cultured in 3D-printed microstructures after 24, 48, and 72 h (Green: calcein AM labeled live cells; Red: PI marked dead cells). Cell concentration: 2 × 10⁴ cells/mL; Scale bar: 100 μm