Fig. 4: Ventricle chamber models.

a Engineering human ventricular cardiac organoid chambers (hvCOC) [scale bars = 5 mm (1), 50 µm (2), 20 µm (3), 500 nm (4)]. Reproduced with permission37. Copyright 2018, Elsevier. b Fiber alignment that occurs under shear stress (τ) during 3D printing leads to native ECM anisotropic structural features in 3D scaffolds, promoting tissue alignment and organization to recapitulate in vivo heart muscle. Structural, electrophysiological, and contractile properties of 3D ventricle models (scale bar = 50 µm). Reproduced with permission40. Copyright 2020, Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. c The optimized bioink formulation was combined with human iPSCs and bioprinted to form a hChaMP [scale bars = 2 mm (top-left), 5 mm (top-right), 5 mm (bottom-left), 5 µm (bottom-right)]. Reproduced with permission41. Copyright 2022, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. d Focused rotary jet spinning for producing helical structures [scale bars = 20 µm (top), 2 mm (bottom)]. Reproduced with permission42. Copyright 2023, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. COXIV cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV, CMs cardiomyocytes, cTnI cardiac troponin I, Cx43 Connexin 43, DAPI 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, ECM extracellular matrix, FN fibronectin, PIV particle image velocimetry, GelMA gelatin methacryloyl, ColMA collagen methacryloyl, LN laminin, Kir2.1 inward rectifier potassium channel, FRJS focused rotary jet spinning